-NRLF 


313 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 

PALEONTOLOGY  LIBRARY 


•  II  y  a  eu  une  epoque  ou  notre  planete  ne  possedait  aucun  germe  de  vie  organised  ;  done  la  vie 
organisee  y  a  commence  sans  germe  anterieur.  Toutes  les  apparitions  nouvelles  qui  ont  eu  lieu 
dans  le  monde  se  sont  faites,  non  par  1'acte  incessamment  renouvele  d'un  Etre  Createur,  mais  par 
la  force  intime  deposee  une  fois  pour  toutes  au  sein  des  choses." — Ernest  Renan. 

'  The  utmost  possibility  for  us  is  an  interpretation  of  the  process  of  things  as  it  presents  itself 
to  our  limited  consciousness.  .  .  .  There  is  no  mode  of  establishing  the  validity  of  any  belief 
except  that  of  showing  its  entire  congruity  with  all  other  beliefs.' — Herbert  Spencer. 


THE 

BEGINNINGS    OF    LIFE 

BEING 

SOME    ACCOUNT    OF    THE    NATURE, 
MODES    OF   ORIGIN  AND    TRANSFORMATIONS 

OF 

LOWER    ORGANISMS. 


H.   CHARLTON   BASTIAN,   M.  A.,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians ; 
Professor  of  Pathological  Anatomy  in  University  College,  London; 

Physician  to  University  College  Hospital; 
Assistant  Physician  to  the  National  Hospital  for  the  Paralysed  and  Epilefiic. 


IN    TWO    VOLUMES. 
VOL.  I. 

WITH   NUMEROUS   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


0rk 

D.    APPLETON   AND    CO. 

1872. 


WTONTOLOGY  LIBRARY 
Gift  of  C.  A.  Kofoid 


OXFORD: 

By  T.  Combe,  M.A.,  E.  B.  Gardner,  E.  Pickard  Hall,  and  J.  H.  Stacy. 
PRINTERS   TO   THE    UNIVERSITY. 


Q-H-  3*5" 


P  RE  FAC  E. 

RATHER  more  than  three  years  ago,  in  the  course 
of  some  investigations  upon  the  microscopical 
characters  of  the  blood  of  persons  suffering  from  acute 
diseases,  my  attention  was  first  thoroughly  given  to  the 
great  question  of  the  Origin  of  Life.  And  as  so 
much  depended  upon  the  proper  solution  of  this 
problem — not  only  for  Science  generally,  but  even  with 
reference  to  the  scientific  basis  of  Medicine — I  deter- 
mined to  undertake  some  investigations  and  endeavour 
to  revise  the  grounds  of  opinion  upon  the  subject. 

I  did  investigate,  and  in  consequence  was  after  a 
time  compelled  to  renounce  my  old  prepossessions, 
and  adopt  views  concerning  the  origin  of  c living' 
matter  which  are  as  yet  only  very  partially  accepted 
in  the  world  of  science.  The  state  of  professional 
opinion  on  these  questions,  moreover,  was  such  that  it 
would  have  been  unsuitable  for  me  to  have  taught 
new  doctrines  based  upon  facts  ascertained  during 
these  investigations,  without  having  fully  and  publicly 
stated  the  grounds  upon  which  I  had  adopted  them. 

At  much  personal  sacrifice,  therefore,  I  resolved  to 
attempt  to  produce  a  statement  of  the  facts  which 
should  carry  conviction  to  the  minds  of  others.  And 

VOL.  i.  b 


vi  PREFACE. 


although  at  first  wishing  to  do  this  in  a  work  much 
smaller  than  that  which  I  now  submit  to  the  public,  it 
was  soon  found  that  more  elaboration  would  be  needed. 
The  scope  of  the  subject  itself,  moreover,  widened  so 
rapidly — biological  problems  of  such  enormous  import- 
ance were  opened  up — that  I  at  last  felt  compelled  to 
pursue  the  investigation  in  a  manner  a  little  more  com- 
mensurate with  the  magnitude  of  its  dependent  issues. 

The  First  Part  of  this  work  was  written  and  printed 
nearly  three  years  ago.  It  was  intended  to  show  the 
general  reader,  more  especially,  that  the  logical  conse- 
quences of  the  now  commonly  accepted  doctrines  con- 
cerning the  'Conservation  of  Energy'  and  the  c Cor- 
relation of  the  Vital  and  Physical  Forces/  were  wholly 
favourable  to  the  possibility  of  the  independent  origin 
of  c  living '  matter.  It  also  contains  a  review  of  the 
'Cellular  Theory  of  Organization/  which  was  written 
and  was  in  type  before  I  had  had  the  pleasure  of  reading 
Prof.  Strieker's  essay  on  c  Cells.' 

In  the  Second  Part  of  the  work,  under  the  head 
cArchebiosis/  the  question  as  to  the  present  occurrence 
or  non-occurrence  of  f  spontaneous  generation '  is  fully 
considered.  And  in  spite  of  all  the  difficulties — in 
great  part  imaginary — which  have  hitherto  interfered 
with  the  acceptance  of  a  positive  solution  of  this 
problem,  it  seems  to  me  one  which  is  now  not  difficult 
to  solve.  It  must  be  considered  to  turn  almost  wholly 
upon  the  possibility  of  the  de  novo  origin  of  Bacteria ; 
since  if  such  a  mode  of  origin  can  be  proved  for  them, 
it  must  also  be  conceded  for  other  allied  fungoid  and 
algoid  units.  Evidence  which  is  of  the  most  convincing 
character  when  looked  at  from  all  sides,  now  shows 


PREFACE.  vii 


that  Bacteria  are  killed  by  a  temperature  of  i4O°F. 
Yet  similar  organisms  will  constantly  appear  and  rapidly 
multiply  within  closed  flasks  containing  organic  fluids, 
although  the  flasks  and  their  contents  have  been  pre- 
viously exposed  for  some  time  to  a  temperature  of 
2i2°F.  The  latter  fact  has  been  admitted  by  almost 
all  experimenters  —  including  even  Spallanzani  and 
Pasteur — and  the  inference  from  it  must  be  quite 
obvious  to  those  who  accept  this  or  any  lower  tem- 
perature as  the  thermal  limit  of  organic  life.  In  experi- 
ments yielding  positive  results,  they  would  have  to 
admit  that  the  progenitors  of  the  new,  and  more  or  less 
rapidly  multiplying  brood  must  have  been  evolved  de 
novo  within  the  previously  superheated  flasks.  So  that, 
even  if  nothing  more  could  be  said,  the  positive  results 
which  can  almost  invariably  be  obtained  in  experiments 
conducted  with  this  temperature,  should  suffice,  in  the 
present  state  of  science,  to  show  that  living  matter  may 
arise  de  novo — more  especially  when  such  a  conclusion  is 
also  supported  by  the  utter  break-down  of  the  opposing 
Panspermic  hypothesis.  But  much  stronger  evidence  can 
be  adduced ;  since  numerous  similarly  successful  results 
have  been  obtained  by  Pasteur  himself,  by  Pouchet, 
Mantegazza,  Wyman,  Cantoni,  Oehl,  and  others — 
although  the  closed  flasks  and  their  contents  had  been 
subjected  to  the  influence  of  still  more  destructive  tem- 
peratures, ranging  from  212°  F  to  rather  over  300° F. 
Several  of  such  experiments  are  now  recorded  for  the 
first  time ;  and  their  results  cannot  be  reasonably  ex- 
plained except  on  the  supposition  that  the  living  things 
obtained  from  the  closed  flasks  had  been  developed 
from  newly-evolved  living  matter. 


viii  PREFACE. 


The  probabilities  in  favour  of  this  interpretation  of  the 
experimental  evidence  become,  moreover,  stronger  and 
stronger  in  proportion  as  the  problem  is  viewed  by 
the  light  derived  from  various  kinds  of  general  evi- 
dence, which  I  have  adduced  in  different  parts  of  this 
work. 

We  know  that  the  molecules  of  elementary  or  mineral 
substances  combine  to  form  acids  and  bases  by  virtue 
of  their  own  c inherent'  tendencies;  that  these  acids 
and  bases  unite  so  as  to  produce  salts,  which,  in  their 
turn,  will  often  again  combine  and  give  rise  to  c  double 
salts/  And  at  each  stage  in  this  series  of  ascending 
molecular  complexities,  we  find  the  products  endowed 
with  properties  wholly  different  from  those  of  their  con- 
stituents. Similarly,  amongst  the  carbon  compounds 
there  is  abundance  of  evidence  to  prove  the  existence 
of  internal  tendencies  or  molecular  properties,  which 
may  and  do  lead  to  the  evolution  of  more  and  more 
complex  chemical  compounds.  And  it  is  such  synthetic 
processes,  occurring  amongst  the  molecules  of  colloidal 
and  allied  substances,  which  seem  so  often  to  engender 
or  give  c origin'  to  a  kind  of  matter  possessing  that 
subtle  combination  of  properties  to  which  we  are 
accustomed  to  apply  the  epithet  c  living.5 

The  experimental  evidence  which  I  have  brought 
forward  not  only  goes  to  prove  that  living  matter  may 
originate  in  this  natural  manner,  but  that,  like  other 
kinds  of  matter,  it  comes  into  being  by  virtue  of  the 
operation  of  the  same  laws  and  molecular  properties 
as  suffice  to  regulate  its  c  growth/  Would  it  not  be 
deemed  absurd  if  we  were  to  assume,  as  a  necessity, 
the  existence  of  one  set  of  agencies  in  order  to  bring 


PREFACE.  ix 


about  the  origination  of  crystalline  matter,  and  of 
another  set  for  inducing  and  regulating  the  growth  of 
crystals  ?  And  may  it  not  also  be  deemed  just  as  absurd 
and  unnecessary  that  any  such  demands  should  be  made 
in  reference  to  the  origin  of  living  matter  and  the 
growth  of  organisms? 

Both  crystalline  and  living  aggregates  appear  to  be 
constantly  separating  de  novo  from  different  fluids,  and 
both  kinds  of  matter  now  seem  to  be  naturally  formable 
from  their  elements.  It  so  happens,  however,  that  one  of 
the  fundamental  properties  of  living  matter — that  is  to 
say,  its  power  of  undergoing  spontaneous  division — 
is  constantly  entailing  results  which,  owing  to  their 
being  of  a  more  obvious  nature,  have  long  and  unduly 
monopolized  the  attention  of  biologists  and  of  the 
world  in  general.  And  yet  the  existence  in  living 
matter  of  this  power  of  spontaneous  division,  by  which 
processes  of c  reproduction '  are  brought  about,  is  rendered 
somewhat  less  exceptional  and  mysterious  when  we 
consider  that  a  fragment  of  crystalline  matter  artificially 
severed  from  the  parent  mass  will,  under  suitable  con- 
ditions, grow  into  a  crystal  similar  to  the  original  form. 
The  reproduction  of  similar  matter  takes  place  in  each 
case ;  and  surely  the  mere  fact  that  the  initial  repro- 
ductive separation  may  occur  c  spontaneously '  in  the 
case  of  living  matter,  is  no  argument  against  the  pro- 
bability that  such  matter  may,  like  crystalline  matter, 
also  come  into  being  by  an  independent  elemental 
mode  of  origin. 

Our  experimental  evidence,  therefore,  merely  goes  to 
prove  that  such  an  elemental  origin  of  living  matter 
is  continually  taking  place  at  the  present  day, — that 


PREFACE. 


it  still  comes  into  being,  in  fact,  by  the  operation  of 
the  same  laws,  and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  majority 
of  scientific  men  and  a  large  section  of  the  educated 
public  believe  that  it  must  have  originated  in  the  early 
days  of  the  earth's  history — when  c living'  compounds 
first  began  to  appear  upon  the  cooling  surface  of  our 
planet.  And  if  such  synthetic  processes  took  place  then, 
why  should  they  not  take  place  now  ?  Why  should  the 
inherent  molecular  properties  of  various  kinds  of  matter 
have  undergone  so  much  alteration  ?  Why  should  these 
particular  processes  of  synthesis  now  be  impossible, 
although  other  processes  of  a  similar  nature  still 
go  on? 

Whilst  no  attempt  has  ever  been  made  to  justify 
or  explain  such  a  supposed  arbitrary  curtailment  of 
natural  laws,  it  happens  most  fortunately  that  the 
ascending  series  of  molecular  combinations,  to  which 
we  have  already  referred,  does  not  end  with  the  birth 
of c  living '  matter.  Steps  which  were  previously  beyond 
the  reach  of  our  senses,  become,  in  some  newly-dis- 
covered terms  of  the  series,  capable  of  ocular  demon- 
stration. Whilst  invisible  colloidal  molecules  are  sup- 
posed to  combine  and  undergo  re-arrangements  in  order 
to  produce  specks  of  new-born  living  matter,  such 
specks  of  living  matter  may  be  actually  seen  to  com- 
bine, fuse,  and  undergo  molecular  re-arrangements  so 
as  to  lead  to  the  origin  of  Fungus-germs,  of  Amoebse, 
of  Monads,  or  of  Ciliated  Infusoria ;  and,  in  the  same 
manner,  larger  and  still  more  complex  living  units  of 
an  algoid  nature  may  actually  be  seen  to  fuse  and 
become  altered  externally,  whilst  they  undergo  those 
obscure  and  mysterious  molecular  re-arrangements 


PREFACE.  xi 


whereby  they  are  converted  into  the  embryos  of 
large  and  complex  Rotifers. 

Visible  phenomena  of  Synthetic  Heterogenesis  thus 
serve,  as  it  were,  to  demonstrate  the  mode  in  which, 
by  invisible  processes,  the  simplest  living  units  may 
arise.  So  that  after  watching  all  the  steps  of  the  more 
complex  phenomena,  we  may  find  it  less  difficult  than 
we  should  otherwise  have  done  to  believe  in  the  occur- 
rence of  the  simpler  process  of  Archebiosis — more  espe- 
cially when  its  occurrence  is  attested  by  facts  and 
probabilities  of  the  highest  independent  value. 

Again,  we  know  that  simple  mineral  substances  may 
exist  in  different  allotropic  conditions,  just  as  numeri- 
cally-similar combinations  of  different  elements  may 
exist  in  two  or  more  isomeric  states.  But,  if  mere 
differences  in  molecular  arrangement  may  cause  sulphur 
or  arsenic,  on  different  occasions,  to  present  wholly 
different  appearances  and  properties;  or  if  a  similar 
alteration  in  molecular  arrangement  may  lead  such  salts 
as  mercuric  iodide  to  pass  easily  from  one  to  another 
mode  of  crystallization,  it  should  not  be  very  difficult 
for  us  to  believe  that  living  matter  might  also,  with 
comparative  ease,  undergo  somewhat  analogous  mole- 
cular rearrangements,  and  that  such  changes  might 
also  entail  some  modifications  in  the  form  and  other 
attributes  of  the  living  aggregate.  And  now,  as  matter 
of  fact,  we  have  to  state  that  the  occurrence  of  Hetero- 
genetic  Transformations  amongst  lower  living  things 
and  in  portions  of  higher  living  things  have  been 
almost  as  well  attested  as  the  occurrence  of  allotropic 
and  isomeric  modifications  amongst  different  kinds  of 
not-living  matter. 


xii  PREFACE. 


Unmistakeable  processes  of  Heterogenesis  have  been 
watched  over  and  over  again  by  some  of  the  best  ob- 
servers, amongst  whom  may  be  named  Turpin,  Kiitzing, 
Reissek,  Hartig,  Gros,  Pringsheim,  Pineau,  Carter, 
Nicolet,  Pouchet,  Schaaffhausen,  Braxton  Hicks,  and 
Trecul.  And  yet  the  careful  investigations  of  these 
well-known  naturalists  have,  upon  this  particular  sub- 
ject, been  either  wholly  disregarded  or  publicly  repudiated 
by  some  leading  biologists  who — not  having  worked 
over  the  same  ground  themselves — rashly  trust  to 
their  own  theoretical  convictions,  rather  than  to  the 
positive  observations  of  so  many  workers.  How  un- 
warrantable this  conduct  has  been,  almost  any  compe- 
tent person — however  sceptical — may  learn  for  himself, 
if  he  will  but  devote  two  or  three  months  to  the  careful 
study  of  the  changes  which  are  apt  to  take  place  in  the 
substance  of  many  of  the  fresh-water  Algae,  or  in  those 
beautiful  green  animalized  organisms  known  by  the 
name  of  Euglenae,  some  of  whose  marvellous  trans- 
formations were  faithfully  described  more  than  twenty 
years  ago  in  the  highly  valuble  but  much  neglected 
memoir  of  Dr.  Gros. 

The  time  is  doubtless  not  far  distant  when  it  will  be 
a  source  of  much  wonder  that  those  who  had  already 
heartily  adopted  the  Evolution  philosophy  could — even 
in  the  face  of  facts  long  ago  known — stop  short  of  a 
belief  in  the  present  and  continual  occurrence  of  Arche- 
biosis  and  Heterogenesis.  Do  not  the  very  simplest 
forms  of  life  abound  at  the  present  day  ?  And,  would 
the  Evolutionist  really  have  us  believe  that  such  forms 
are  direct  continuations  of  an  equally  structureless  matter 


PREFACE.  Xlll 


which  has  existed  for  millions  and  millions  of  years 
without  having  undergone  any  differentiation  ?  Would 
he  have  us  believe  that  the  simplest  and  most  struc- 
tureless Amoeba  of  the  present  day  can  boast  of  a  line 
of  ancestors  stretching  back  to  such  far-remote  periods 
that  in  comparison  with  them  the  primseval  men  were 
but  as  things  of  yesterday?  The  notion  surely  is 
preposterously  absurd;  or,  if  true,  the  fact  would  be 
sufficient  to  overthrow  the  very  first  principles  of  their 
own  Evolution  philosophy.  Again,  may  we  not  see  at 
the  present  day  all  those  minute  shades  of  difference 
by  which  the  primordial  fissiparous  act  of  reproduction 
gives  place  to  the  more  and  more  specialized  forms 
of  bisexual  reproduction?  Even  this  could  scarcely 
occur  unless  the  excessively  changeable  forms  of  life 
which  supply  us  with  these  various  transitions  were 
continually  seething  into  existence  afresh.  Instead  of 
having  to  do  with  a  pretty  accurate  picture  of  the 
original  process  of  evolution,  each  sectional  mosaic  of 
which  has  been  faithfully  transmitted  for  millions  of 
years  with  little  or  no  variation,  we  probably  stand  face 
to  face  with  processes  that  have  been  independently 
repeated  billions  and  billions  of  times — and  repeated 
in  a  more  or  less  similar  manner,  simply  because  the 
processes  themselves  have  always  been  the  results  of 
the  conjoint  action  of  the  same  external  forces  in 
conflict  with  similar  material  properties  or  tendencies. 
Like  causes  should  produce  like  results:  so  that  the 
primordial  living  units  of  to-day  should  undergo  changes 
which  are,  in  the  main,  similar  to  those  passed  through 
by  the  units  of  living  matter  which  first  came  into 
being  upon  the  surface  of  our  globe. 


xiv  PREFACE. 


Again,  we  find  that  the  comparatively  low  forms  of 
life  in  which  all  these  developmental  transitions  are 
embodied,  instead  of  being  almost  unchangeable — as 
they  ought  to  be  if  there  were  any  truth  in  the  con- 
tradictory doctrines  to  which  we  have  already  referred 
— are  variable  in  the  highest  degree.  They  pass  through 
the  most  diverse  and  astounding  transformations,  and, 
as  we  have  endeavoured  to  show  in  the  Third  Part  of 
this  work,  such  organisms  are  often  seen  to  be  derived 
from  matrices  wholly  unlike  themselves. 

In  fact,  these  lower  forms  of  life — corresponding 
pretty  closely  with  the  Protista  of  Prof.  Haeckel — form 
an  enormous  and  ever-growing  plexus  of  vegetal  and 
animal  organisms,  amongst  which  transitions  from  the 
one  to  the  other  mode  of  growth  take  place  with  the 
greatest  ease  and  frequency.  Here  Heterogenesis  is 
constantly  encountered,  and  variability  reigns  supreme, 
so  that  those  assemblages  of  definitely  recurring  indi- 
viduals, answering  to  what  we  call  c  species/  are  not 
to  be  found  amongst  them.  They  are  essentially  tran- 
sitory and  variable  forms,  which  I  have  proposed  to 
name  cEphemeromorphs/  Regularly  recurring  or  homo- 
genetically  produced  types,  both  animal  and  vegetal, 
are,  however,  constantly  arising  out  of  this  great  ephe- 
meromorphic  plexus,  either  by  direct  and  sudden  pro- 
cesses of  transformation  or  by  some  intermediate  and 
cyclical  processes  of  so-called  '  alternate  generation.' 

And  until  such  assemblages  of  repeating  individuals 
make  their  appearance — that  is,  until  Homogenesis 
becomes  the  rule — the  claws  of  heredity'  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  come  into  operation.  Hence  the  complexly- 
interrelated  individuals,  constituting  this  vast  under- 


PREFACE.  XV 


lying  plexus  of  Infusorial  and  Cryptogamic  life,  must 
remain  wholly  uninfluenced,  so  far  as  their  form  and 
structure  is  concerned,  by  what  Mr.  Darwin  has 
termed  c  Natural  Selection.'  Such  vegetal  and  animal 
organisms,  however,  gradually  tend  to  become  more  and 
more  complex.  An  ascending  development  takes  place, 
and  as  this  occurs,  the  causes  which  originally  sufficed 
to  determine  their  form  and  structure,  and  which  for  a 
time  continue  to  induce  deviations,  become  less  and 
less  capable  of  bringing  about  structural  modifications 
during  the  life  of  the  individual.  Changes  have  now 
to  be  perfected  in  a  succession  of  individuals;  and 
thus  is  the  operation  initiated  of  those  subtle  and 
more  slowly  modifying  agencies  which  have  been  so 
admirably  illustrated  by  Mr.  Darwin. 

Throughout  this  work,  whilst  I  have  been  anxious 
to  consider  the  various  aspects  of  the  subject  with  as 
much  thoroughness  as  was  necessary  in  order  to  be  able 
fairly  to  attempt  to  establish  the  truth  of  the  principal 
doctrines  now  advanced,  I  have  also  tried  to  simplify 
the  problems  as  much  as  possible.  A  limitation  was, 
moreover,  necessitated  by  the  pressing  nature  of  those 
more  strictly  professional  duties,  on  account  of  which 
I  was  first  induced  to  enter  upon  these  investigations, 
and  in  the  midst  of  which  the  work  has  been  carried 
on.  A  rich  harvest,  therefore,  remains  for  many  other 
workers  who  may  wish  to  develop  the  subject  in  all  its 
collateral  bearings. 

These  volumes  being,  in  great  part,  the  record  of  a 
series  of  current  investigations — each  section  of  which 
was  written  whilst  the  next  division  of  the  subject  was 


xvi  PREFACE. 


being  investigated— some  forbearance  may,  perhaps,  not 
unfairly  be  claimed  for  certain  literary  defects  and  in- 
consistencies, which  were  to  some  extent  unavoidable. 
For  although  this  order  was  definitely  planned,  yet  it 
has  happened  that  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  work 
was  actually  printed  before  the  new  investigations  de- 
tailed in  the  latter  part  were  made — and  certainly  at  a 
time  when  I  had  scarcely  hoped  ever  to  witness  such 
transformations  as  I  have  since  been  able  to  follow. 

I  am  deeply  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  we 
are  but  upon  the  threshold  of  our  acquaintance  with 
these  marvellous  heterogenetic  transformations,  the 
discovery  of  which  already  affords  material  for  revolu- 
tionizing the  old  foundations  of  botanical  and  zoological 
science.  But  the  path  now  opened  must  be  followed 
up  by  other  workers — by  faithful  and  competent  ob- 
servers who  are  willing  zealously  to  watch  and  wait 
through  eager  hours  whilst  Nature  unfolds  her  secret 
processes — by  those  true  students  who,  instead  of  being 
blinded  by  any  existing  theories,  are  content  to  regard 
them  as  useful  and  modifiable  aids  to  further  progress. 


QUEEN  ANNE  STREET,  CAVENDISH  SQUARE, 
May  22,  1872. 


CONTENTS. 


Index         ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  page  xx  i 

PART  I. 

The  Nature  and  Source  of  the  Vital  Forces,  and  of 
Organizable  Matter. 

CHAPTER    I. 

Pages 

The  Persistence  of  Force :    Correlation   of  the   Vital  and 

Physical  Forces 1-49 

CHAPTER   II. 

The  'Vital  Principle':  Nature  of  Life  ..          ..          ..         5O~79 

CHAPTER   III. 

Nature  of  Organizable  Materials  and  of  lowest  Living  Things    80-128 

CHAPTER    IV. 

Relations  of  Animal,  Vegetable,  and    Mineral    Kingdoms : 

Theories  of  Organization  ..          ..          ..          ..     129-168 

CHAPTER    V. 
Modes  of  Origin  of  Reproductive  Units  and  of  Cells        ..      169-239 


xviii  CONTENTS. 


PART  II. 
Archebiosis. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

Pages 

Meanings  attached  to  term  'Spontaneous  Generation'       ..     243-264 

CHAPTER    VII. 

Mode  of  Origin  of  Primordial  Living  Things:    Nature  of 

Problem        265-395 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Limits  of  '  Vital  Resistance '  to  Heat  . .    -     . .          . .     306-343 

CHAPTER    IX. 

The   Experimental   Proof:    Untenability   of  Pasteur's   Con- 
clusions       ...  ..     344-399 

CHAPTER    X. 
Physical  and  Vital  Theories  of  Fermentation          ..          ..     400-427 

CHAPTER    XI. 

Additional  Proofs  of  the  Occurrence  of  Archebiosis          ..     428-475 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.  Page 

1.  Animals  found  in  tufts  of  Moss  and  Lichen  ..          ..  106 

2.  Hydra  viridis  on  Duckweed  (Roesel)  ..          ..          ••  112 

3.  Representatives  of  Monera  (Haeckel)  ..          ..          ..  119 

4.  Animal  Cells  (Kolliker)          ••  M5 

5.  Unicellular  Organisms  152 

6.  Formation  of  Spore  in  Vaucheria  (Hassall)  ..          ..  174 

7.  Development  of  Zoospores  in  Achlya  (linger)       ..          ..  180 

8.  Development  of  Spores  in  Ascomycetous  Fungi  (Corda)  183 

9.  Development  of  'Cells'  in  internodes  of  Chara  (Carter)  187 

10.  Reproduction  of  Protomyxa  (Haeckel)        194 

11.  Development  of  Reproductive  Units   in  Amoeba  (Nicolet)  198 

12.  Early  Forms  of  Ova  in  Ascaris  mystax  (A.  Thomson)      ..  201 

13.  Graafian  Follicles  of  a  Mammal  (Coste) 203 

14.  Portions  of  the  Ovary  of  the  Thrush  (A.  Thomson)        ..  205 

15.  Segmentation  of  the  Yolk  after  Fecundation  (Kolliker)   ..  209 

16.  Development  of  white  blood-corpuscles 226 

17.  Some  of  the  Primordial  Forms  of  Life:  Bacteria,  Torulse, 

&c 272 

1 8.  Other  Early  Forms  of  Life  from  Organic  Infusions         ..  274 

19.  Oscillatorise  and  other  Simple  Fresh-water  Algse  (Hassall)  276 

20.  The  '  Micrococci '  and  '  Cryptococci '  of  Hallier    .  .          . .  284 

21.  Sarcina  from  Saline  Solutions  ..  ..          ..          ••  287 

22.  Different  Developmental  Stages  of 'Spores'  (?)  found  in  an 

Ammonic  Carbonate  Solution        290 

23.  Organisms  found  in  Infusions  of  Hay  with  Carbolic  Acid  356 


XX  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig.  Page 

24.  Bacteria,  Vibriones,  and  Leptothrix  Filaments  found  in  an 

Infusion  of  Turnip   ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      358 

25.  Organisms    found    in    a    Simple    Solution   of    Ferric   and 

Ammonic  Citrate      . .          . .          . .          . .          . .          . .      364 

26.  Organisms   found  in  a  Solution   of  Ferric   and   Ammonic 

Citrate,  with  minute  fragments  of  wood  . .          . .          . .      365 

27.  Fungus  from  a  Solution  of  Potash   and   Ammonia  Alum 

with  Tartar-emetic  ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      367 

28.  Torulse  from  a  Solution  of  Ammonic  Tartrate  and  Sodic 

Phosphate      ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      369 

29.  Fungus  from  a  Solution  of  Ammonic  Tartrate  and  Sodic 

Phosphate      ..          ..  ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      371 

30.  Organisms  from  a  Neutralized  Infusion  of  Turnip  ..      442 

31.  Protamcebse,    Monads,   Torulse,   &c.,  from   an   Infusion   of 

Common   Cress         ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      444 

32.  Torulse  from  a  Neutralized  Infusion  of  Turnip      ..          ..      447 

33.  Pediastreae  from  a  Solution  containing  Iron  and  Ammonic 

Citrate,  &c 448 

34.  Green  and  Colourless  Organisms  from  a  Solution  of  Iron 

and  Ammonic  Citrate          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      450 

35.  Greenish,  Desmid-like  Organisms   found   in  a  Fluorescent 

Solution  of  Iron  and  Ammonic  Citrate  ..          ..          ..      453 

36.  Spore-like  bodies  from  a  Solution  of  Ammonic  Carbonate 

and  Sodic  Phosphate  ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      462 

37.  Bacteria    and    Spore-like    bodies    found    in   a  Solution    of 

Ammonic  Carbonate  and  Sodic  Phosphate         ..          ..      463 

38.  Fungus   found   in   a   Solution   of  Ammonic   Tartrate    and 

Sodic  Phosphate       ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      466 


INDEX. 


{Pages  of  the  Appendix  are  referred  to  by  Roman  Numerals.) 


ACHLYA,  production  of  zoospores  in, 
i.  179. 

Acinetee,  developmental  relation- 
ships of,  xciv. 

Actinophrys,  mode  of  origin  of,  ii. 
381 ;  transformation  of  Euglenee 
into,  ii.  45 6 ;  conversion  of,  into 
Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii.  485 ;  sub- 
sequent development  of,  ii.  505  ; 
resolution  of  Rotifers  into,  ii.  523; 
transformation  of,  into  Tardi- 
grades,  ii.  524;  into  Nematoids, 
ii.  525. 

Agardh,  on  zoospores  in  Conferva, 
i.  171. 

Agassiz,  on  relation  of  Ciliata  to 
Planaria,  cvii. 

Air,  germs  in,  ii.  6,  7,  264-288. 

Algae,  transitions  between  Fungi 
and,  ii.  159;  relations  of,  to  Pe- 
diastreae  and  Desmids,  ii.  160; 
spores  of,  ii.  376;  interchange- 
ability  of  Lichens  and,  ii.  452; 
lower,  relations  of,  to  Lichens, 
liii-lviii ;  variability  of,  lix-lxii ; 
relations  of,  to  Mosses,  Ixiii-lxvi ; 
to  Fungi,  Ixxvi. 

Algoid  corpuscles,  resolution  of 
Euglense  into,  ii.  4+2  ;  transform- 
ation of,  ii.  443  ;  origin  of  Rotifers 
from,  ii.  510. 

Alternate  Generation,  ii.  564 ;  rela- 
tions of,  to  other  processes,  ii. 
566 ;  nature  and  mode  of  origin 
of,  ii.  570. 

VOL.  I. 


Ammonic  Tartrate,  preparation  of, 
xvi ;  crystals  of,  containing  germs, 
xvi;  examination  of  crystals  of, 
xvii ;  spores  in  crystals  of,  xviii. 

Amoebae,  germ-formation  in,  i,  197  ; 
digestion  in,  ii.  132;  interchange- 
ability  of  Monads  and,  ii.  218; 
encystment  of,  ii.  22  r;  resolu- 
tion of,  into  Bacteria,  ii.  222; 
production  of,  in  Moss-radicles, 
ii.  376;  modes  of  origin  of,  ii. 
381,  388  ;  origin  of,  in  Vaucheria, 
ii.  395 ;  in  Nitella,  ii.  404 ;  from 
Chlorophyll  corpuscles,  ii.  408  ; 
transformation  of  Euglense  into, 
ii.  456 ;  formation  of,  in  Pro- 
tonema,  Ixx  ;  relations  of,  to 
Fungi,  Ixxix ;  to  other  Infusoria, 
xc ;  relations  of,  to  Actiuophrys, 
xcv. 

Amylobacter,  origin  of,  ii.  318; 
conversion  of  crystalline  mass 
into,  ii.  322. 

Animal  heat,  origin  of,  i.  24 ;  in- 
creased by  muscular  activity,  i. 
29 ;  increase  of,  during  nerve- 
activity,  i.  40. 

Animals,  functions  of,  related  to 
those  of  plants,  i.  129;  forms  of, 
interchangeable  with  those  of  ve- 
getals,  ii.  431,  434. 

Antiseptic  system  of  treatment  in 
disease,  cxxv. 

Arcellinse,  486 ;  transformation  of, 
into  Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii.  487. 


XX11 


INDEX. 


Archebiosis,  meaning  of,  i.  232,  244; 
views  of  vitalists  antagonistic  to, 
i.  248 ;  theory  of,  ii.  108 ;  experi- 
ments bearing  upon,  i.  355-372, 
434-468,  xxx-lii ;  relation  of,  to 
other  processes,  (Table)  ii.  545, 546. 

Arlidge,  Dr.,  on  Phytozoa,  Ixxxi. 

Ascarides,  development  of  ova  of, 
i.  200. 

Astasise,  modes  of  origin  of,  ii.  390, 
392,  420;  heterogenetic  changes 
in,  ii.  434 ;  relations  of,  to  Proto- 
coccus.  Ixxxiii ;  Dr.  Gros  on  trans- 
formations of,  Ixxxv. 


Bacon,  Lord,  on  Heat,  i.  6. 

Bacteria,  views  concerning  modes 
of  origin  of,  i.  268  ;  microscopical 
examination  of,  i.  294 ;  origin  of, 
compared  with  that  of  crystals,  i. 
-298 ;  vital  resistance  of,  to  heat, 
i.  317;  living  in  air,  ii.  2,  6,  7 ; 
desiccation  of,  ii.  3-5  ;  different 
views  concerning,  ii.  134;  varia- 
tions in  development  of,  ii.  137- 
140;  relations  of,  to  Torulse,  ii. 
140-146  ;  in  pellicle,  ii.  207  ;  pro- 
duction of,  from  Amoebse,  ii.  2  2  2  ; 
from  embryonal  spheres,  ii.  401 ; 
from  Euglense,  ii.  442  ;  develop- 
mental tendencies  of,  xxii. 

Bacteridia,  i.  275. 

Baer,  Von,  on  development  in  plants 
and  animals,  ii.  125. 

Barry,  De,  on  Myxogasteres,  Ixxix; 
on  development  of  zoospores  in 
Cystopus,  Ixxx. 

Bathybius,  i.  122. 

Beale,  Dr.  Lionel,  views  concerning 
living  units,  i.  153-158  ;  on  germs 
within  cells  and  tissues,  ii.  342  ; 
Panspermic  theory  of,  ii.  358. 

Bechamp,  M.,  Bacteria  in  cells,  ii. 
342- 

Beclard,  M.,  on  development  of  heat 
during  muscular  activity,  i.  29. 

Bennett,  Prof.  Hughes,  on  cellular 
theory  of  organization,  i.  160, 
ii.  344 ;  cellular  crystals,  ii.  59. 


Berkeley,  Rev.  M.  J.,  on  nature  of 
Fungi,  ii.  153;  on  Botrytis  in- 
festans,  ii.  341 ;  development  of 
mushrooms,  ii.  433 ;  relations  of 
Fungi  to  Algse  and  Lichens,  Ixxvi  ; 
variability  of  Fungi,  Ixxvii ;  rela- 
tions of  animal  and  vegetable  life, 
Ixxx.  - 

Biocsenosis,  nature  of,  i.  234,  (Table) 
ii.  545,  546. 

Biocrasis,  ii.  193;  nature  of,  i.  233  ; 
heterogenetic,  ii.  62,  (Table)  ii. 

545.  546. 
Biodioeresis, nature  of,  i.  233,  (Table) 

ii.  545,  546. 
Bioparadosis,    nature    of,    i.     234, 

(Table)  ii.  545,  546- 
Birds,  their  specialized  organization, 

ii.  627. 

Black-death,  cxxix. 
Blood,   constituents   of,  as   sources 

of  energy,   i.   48  ;    heterogenetic 

changes  in,  ii.  332  ;  (Sang  de  rate) 

nature  of,  ii.  362  ;  diseases  of,  cxii, 

cxvii. 
Bonnet,   Charles,  on  Panspermi<=m, 

i.  259;  theories  concerning  germs, 

ii.  266. 
Boussingault,  M.,  on  vital  forces,  i. 

21 ;    source    of   nourishment    in 

plants,  i.  135. 
Braun,  Alexander,  on  formation  of 

seed  in  Phanerogamia,  i.  190 ;  the 

cell,  i.  216 ;  formation  of  seed-cell 

in  QEdogonium,  i.  177. 
Brebisson,  M.  de,  on  origin  of  Mosses 

from  Conferoe,  ii.  454. 
Brongniart,  M.  Ad.,  on  succession  of 

life  on  the  earth,  i.  137-141. 
Brownian-movement,  i.  318. 
Buffon,  theory  of  life,  ii.  1 74. 
Burdach,  on  Heterogeny,  i.  246,  261. 


Calculi,  artificial  formation  of,  ii. 
60-65. 

Cancer,  non-specific  nature  of,  cxiii, 
cxvii ;  germs  of,  cxiii ;  spread  of, 
cxv;  comparable  with  spread  of 
epidemic  diseases,  cxviii. 


INDEX. 


xxin 


Cantoni,  Professor,  experiments  of, 
with  superheated  flasks,  i.  436  ; 
with  bent-neck  flasks,  ii.  9. 

Carpenter,  Dr.,  on  correlation  of 
forces,  i.  18,  21  ;  continuity  of 
types  of  Foraminifera,  ii.  104; 
views  of,  concerning  individual- 
ity, ii.  553 ;  on  Foraminifera,  ii. 
6 1 1 ;  epidemic  diseases,  cliii. 

Carter,  Mr.  H.  J.,  on  development 
of  gonidial-cell  in  Characese,  1.187; 
heterogenetic  changes  in  gonidial- 
cell,  ii.  378 ;  transformations  in 
Spirogyra,  ii.  387  ;  mode  of  origin 
of  Otostoma,  11.479;  transform- 
ations of  Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii. 
497 ;  relations  of  Amoebae  to 
Astasise,  Ixxxix. 

Cells,  formation  and  nature  of,  i. 
144-158;  formation  of  gonidial- 
cell  in  Characese,  i.  187;  inde- 
pendent origin  of,  in  Phaneroga- 
mia,  i.  190 ;  as  products  of  deve- 
lopment, i.  216;  origin  of,  in 
Blastemata,  i.  220-231  ;  another 
mode  of  origin  of,  i.  231 ;  hete- 
rogenetic changes  in,  ii.  338- 

345- 

Cellular  theory,  discussion  of,  i.  143- 
168. 

Chara,  M.  Nicolet  on  transforma- 
tions in  filaments  of,  ii.  474; 
origin  of  Ciliated  Infusoria  from 
protoplasm  of,  ii.  478. 

Characese,  on  development  of  goni- 
dial-cell in,  i.  187.  (See  Nitella.'} 

Child,  Dr.,  on  original  evolution  of 
organic  life,  i.  92 ;  experiments 
on  fermentation,  1.416. 

Chlorococcus  vesicles,  transforma- 
tion of,  into  Oxytricha  and  Plce- 
sconia,  ii.  467 ;  aggregations  of, 
into  '  winter-egg '  of  Hydatina, 
ii.  514;  relation  of,  to  Lichens, 
liii;  developmental  changes  of, 
liv ;  production  of,  from  Proto- 
nema,  Ixviii;  relation  of,  to  Gleo- 
capsa.  Ixix. 

Chlorophyll,  influence  of,  in  meta- 
morphic  changes,  ii.  425. 


Chlorophyll-corpuscles,  of  Nitella, 
transformations  of,  ii.  407 ;  of 
Euglenae  into  Enchelys,  ii.  410; 
of  Moss-radicles  into  Monads,  ii. 
41 1 ;  of  Vaucheria  and  Nitella 
into  Desmids,  ii.  418. 

Cholera,  Dr.  Aitken  on,  cxxix, 
cxxxviii. 

Cienkowski,  views  concerning  Aci- 
netse  and  Vorticellre,  xciv-xcvi. 

Ciliated  Infusoria,  mode  of  origin 
of,  ii.  238,  288;  reproduction  of, 
ii.  290-297 ;  relation  of,  to  the 
pellicle,  ii.  299;  other  influences 
affecting,  ii.  302  ;  digestion  in,  ii. 
132  ;  direct  transformation  of 
Euglense  into,  ii.  450  ;  production 
of,  from  Monads  and  Amcebse,  ii. 
472  ;  origin  of,  from  protoplasm 
of  Chara,  ii.  478  ;  from  animal 
matrices,  ii.  483 ;  from  eggs  of 
Gasteropods  and  Rotifers,  ii.  488; 
convertibility  of  forms  of,  ii.  492  ; 
ascending  transformations  of,  ii. 
500 ;  encystment  of,  ii.  500 ;  va- 
riations in  habitat  of,  ii.  535  ; 
varied  modes  of  reproduction  of, 
xcvii-cv;  successive  forms  of,  in 
infusions,  cvi ;  relations  of,  to 
Planaria,  cvii. 

Closterium,  production  of,  from 
Euglenae,  ii.  446. 

Cobbold,   Dr.,  on  Psorosperms,  ii. 

353- 

Cohn,  Professor,  on  Bacteria,  i.  270; 
on  constitution  of  Pellicle,  i.  278  ; 
on  origin  of  Empusa.  ii.  330 ;  ex- 
periments with  Stephanosphsera, 
Ixxxi ;  observations  on  transform- 
ations of  Protococcus,  Ixxxii ;  suc- 
cession of  Ciliata  in  Infusions, 
cvi. 

Colloidal  matter,  bodies  emerging 
from  solutions  of,  ii.  65. 

Colloids,  Professor  Graham  on  dis- 
tinction between  crystalloids  and, 
i.  88 ;  properties  of,  i.  89 ;  insta- 
bility of,  i.  #6  ;  interchangeability 
of  crystalloids  and,  ii.  38  ;  nature 
of,  ii.  52. 


C  2 


XXIV 


INDEX. 


Comparative  Experiments,  bearing 
upon  occurrence  of  Archebiosis, 
xxx-lii. 

Conclusions,  ii.  633-640. 

Confervse,  origin  of  Mosses  from,  ii. 
452- 

Consciousness,  i.  42  ;  not  co-exten- 
sive with  Mind,  i.  43  ;  changes  in 
sphere  of,  i.  44 ;  degree  of  corre- 
lation with  nerve-action,  i.  45 ; 
quantitative  value  of,  i.  46. 

Contagion,  theory  of,  ii.  360 ;  mode 
in  which  brought  about,  cxviii ; 
early  views  concerning,  cxix. 

Contagious  element,  action  of,  in 
parasitic  diseases,  ii.  361-365. 

Contagiousness,  degrees  of,  cxiv, 
cxxxv;  explanation  of,  cxlviii. 

Contractility  of  muscle,  i.  26 ;  de- 
pendent on  blood-supply,  i.  28. 

Corda,  on  Peziza,  i.  184. 

Crystalline  matter,  causes  of  differ- 
ences in  form  of,  ii.  87 ;  cellular 
forms  of,  ii.  59. 

Crystalloids,  distinction  between 
colloids  and,  i.  88  ;  interchange- 
ability  of  states  of  colloids  and, 
ii.  38. 

Crystals,  origin  of,  compared  with 
that  of  lowest  organisms,  i.  298, 
ii.  71-85  ;  Mr.  Rainey  on  form- 
ation of  modifications  of,  i.  302  ; 
formation  of,  under  different  con- 
ditions, ii.  55-65 ;  size  of,  de- 
pends upon  rate  of  collocation,  ii. 
69 ;  influence  of  conditions  on 
forms  of,  ii.  87,  113;  development 
of,  ii.  114. 


Darwin,  Dr.  Erasmus,  views  on  Or- 
ganization, ii.  538. 

Darwin,  Mr.,  on  Natural  Selection, 
ii-  572>  576;  influence  of  new 
conditions  upon  species,  ii.  580, 
591 ;  not  a  believer  in  Progressive 
Development,  ii.  590 ;  converti- 
bility of  peach  and  nectarine, 
ii.  596,  598 ;  Correlated  Varia- 
bility, ii.  601 ;  Pangenesis,  ii.  603  ; 


affiliation  of  existing  organisms, 
ii.  606 ;  variability  of  lower  or- 
ganisms, ii.  607  ;  stability  of  spe- 
cies through  long  periods,  ii.  609. 

Davaine,  M.,  on  Bacteridia,  i.  275  ; 
observations  on  Sang  de  rate,  ii. 
362. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,  on  Heat,  i.  8. 

Decolonization,  process  of,  in  deve- 
lopment of  Nematoids  and  Roti- 
fers, ii.  532. 

Desmids,  modes  of  origin  of,  ii.  41 2, 
416,  418,  443,  446,  451 ;  mode  of 
reproduction  of,  ii.  420 ;  converti- 
bility of,  into  Diatoms  or  Algae,  ii. 

455- 

Diatoms,  origin  of,  ii.  412,  416,  418, 
441,  444,  453  ;  mode  of  reproduc- 
tion of,  ii.  420 ;  terminal  forms  of 
a  divergent  series,  ii.  455. 

Diseases  of  skin,  parasitic,  ii.  346; 
blood-changes  in,  ii.  361 ;  nature 
of,  cxi ;  causes  of,  cxi ;  of  general 
nature,  ii.  360,  cxii;  of  special 
nature,  cxiii.  Epidemic,  mor- 
tality from,  cix;  importance  of, 
ex ;  problems  as  to  origin  of, 
ex,  cxlv,  cli-clv ;  nature  of,  cxvii, 
cxlix;  relations  of,  to  Cancer  and 
Tubercle,  cxvii ;  spread  of,  cxviii ; 
doctrines  concerning,  influenced 
by  views  on  Fermentation,  ex, 
cxx,  cxlix ;  predisposing  causes  of, 
cliii ;  independent  origin  of,  cliii ; 
contagious,  how  related  to  non- 
contagious,  cxxx ;  classification  of, 
cxlvi ;  how  differing  from  general 
parasitic  diseases,  cxlvii. 

Distomata,  direct  development  of 
some,  explained,  ii.  571. 

Dumas,  M.,  functions  of  animals 
and  plants  compared,  i.  130, 
142. 

Dysentery,  cxxxviii. 


Ehrenberg,  on  multiplication  of  In- 
fusoria, i.  262. 

Embryonal  areas  of  pellicle,  nature 
and  developmental  transforma- 


/  N  D  E  X. 


XXV 


tions  of,  ii.  198-254 ;  spheres, 
changes  in,  ii.  40  r. 

Empusa,  nature  of,  ii.  330. 

Entozoa,  ii.  309. 

Ephemeromorphs,  nature  of,  ii.  559  ; 
relation  of,  to  crystals,  ii.  571; 
not  influenced  by  Natural  Selec- 
tion, ii.  572;  causes  which  regu- 
late their  structure,  ii.  600 ;  have 
no  long  line  of  ancestors,  ii.  606 ; 
Foraminifera  to  be  included 
amongst,  ii.  613. 

Epochs,  Geological,  forms  of  life  in, 
ii.  621. 

Erysipelas,  cxxxiv. 

Estor,  M.,  Bacteria  in  cells  of  ani- 
mals, ii.  342. 

Euglenae,  modes  of  origin  of,  ii.  421 ; 
heterogenetic  transformations  of, 
ii.  434 ;  into  fungus-germs,  ii.  436  ; 
into  Monads,  ii.  440 ;  into  Dia- 
toms, ii.  441 ;  into  Algoid  cor- 
puscles, ii.  442  ;  external  vesicu- 
lation  of,  ii.  436,  440 ;  minor  mo- 
difications of,  ii.  443 ;  transforma- 
tion of,  into  Diatoms,  ii.  444; 
into  Desmids  and  Pediastrese,  ii. 
446 ;  into  Vaucheria  filament,  ii. 
449 ;  into  Actinophrys  and  Amoe- 
bae, ii.  456;  direct  transformation 
of,  into  Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii.  459 ; 
into  Oxytricha  and  Trichoda,  ii. 
462  ;  into  Vorticella,  ii.  464,  504 ; 
into  Amoebae  and  Actinophrys,  ii. 
505;  into  Rotifers,  ii.  506,  518, 
525;  into  Tardigrades  and  Nema- 
toids,  ii.  525  ;  into  Nematoids,  ii. 
527;  relations  of,  to  Protococcus 
and  Oscillatorise,  Ixxxiii ;  on  trans- 
formations of,  Ixxxv. 

Evolution,  hypothesis  of,  i.  92  ;  arti- 
ficial, i.  92;  of  complex  chemical 
compounds,  ii.  24 ;  simple,  ii.  1 21 ; 
compound,  ii.  122. 


Faraday,  on  indestructibility  of  force, 

1.15. 
Fermentation,    cause  of,  related  to 

origin  of   life,  i.  400;    Liebig's 


physical  theory  of,  i.  403;  vital 
theory  of,  held  by  Pasteur  and 
others,  i.  404 ;  presence  of  oxygen 
not  essential  for  initiation  of,  i. 
416;  conclusions  on  subject  of, 
i.  420 ;  three  principal  modes  of, 
1.423;  analogy  of,  to  vital  pro- 
cesses, 1.425,  ii.  186;  occurrence 
of,  in  bent-neck  flasks,  ii.  12; 
two  degrees  of,  ii.  14;  theories 
of,  in  their  bearing  upon  Conta- 
gious Diseases,  cxlix. 

Fevers,  Intermittent  and  Remittent, 
cxxxv ;  Yellow,  cxxxvii ;  Typhoid 
and  Relapsing,  cxl;  Typhus,  cxl, 
cxlii,  cliv;.  Scarlet,  cxliii,  cliv. 

Flagellum  of  Monads,  development 
of,  ii.  212. 

Fluidity,  state  of,  ii.  42. 

Food,  relation  of,  to  vital  forces,  ii. 
1 83  ;  putrid  articles  of,  cxxiv. 

Foraminifera,  ancient  descent  of,  ii. 
104;  nature  of,  ii.  611  ;  types  of, 
explanation  of  apparent  persistence 
of,  ii.  613. 

Force,  inseparability  of  matter  and, 
i.  5 ;  indestructibility  of,  i.  14  ; 
origin  and  distribution  of,  in 
living  bodies,  ii.  18.3. 

Fox,  Dr.  Tilbury,  on  Parasitic  skin- 
diseases,  ii.  347. 

Fox,  Dr.  Wilson,  experiments  on 
inoculability  of  Tubercle,  cxiv. 

Frankland,  Prof.,  on  vital  and  phy- 
sical forces,  i.  22,  54;  mode  of 
preparation  of  experimental  flasks, 
ii.  438. 

Fungi,  relation  of,  to  Bacteria,  ii. 
1 34 ;  to  Amcebse  and  Monads,  ii. 
157;  to  Algae  and  Lichens,  ii. 
159;  mode  of  origin  of  micro- 
scopic, ii.  338 ;  presence  of,  in 
closed  cavities,  ii.  349  ;  influence 
of  conditions  on  development  of, 
ii.  in;  exogenous  origin  of,  from 
Euglenoe,  ii.  436 ;  in  solutions 
containing  silicates,  xi-xiii ;  rela- 
tions of,  to  Algae  and  Lichens, 
Ixxvi;  to  Amoebae,  Ixxix;  varia- 
bility of,  Ixxvii. 


XXVI 


INDEX. 


Fungus-germs,  mode  of  origin  of, 
i.  183,  ii.  203 ;  development  of,  in 
Ammonic-carbonate  solution,  i. 
288 ;  vital  resistance  of,  to  heat, 
i.  315  ;  origin  of,  in  pellicle,  from 
segmentation  of  Amoebae,  ii.  226; 
origin  of,  from  embryonal  areas, 
ii.  233;  in  blood,  ii.  331;  from 
milk-globules,  ii.  310;  from  em- 
bryonal spheres,  ii.  401 ;  resolu- 
tion of  Euglenae  into,  ii.  436;  in- 
dependent origin  of,  within  closed 
flasks  (see  Arcbebiosis,  experiments 
relating  to). 


Gavarret,  M.,  on  source  of  energy 
in  animals,  i.  23,  48 ;  mode  of 
action  of  muscle,  i.  30. 

Gay-Lussac,  views  of,  concerning 
fermentation,  i.  416. 

Gemmae,  ii.  520. 

Gerhard t,  on  fermentation,  i.  416. 

Germ-cells,  ii.  96. 

Germs,  existence  of,  in  air,  ii.  305, 
538  ;  two  theories  concerning,  ii. 
266 ;  M.  Pasteur  on  unequal  dis- 
tribution of,  ii.  272;  M.  Pouchet 
and  others  on  atmospheric,  ii. 
275-288  ;  distribution  of  those  of 
Rotifers  and  Nematoids,  ii.  535 ; 
absence  of,  in  crystals,  xv ;  abun- 
dance of,  in  old  crystals,  xxv; 
presence  of,  in  crystals  of  Am- 
monic  Tartrate,  xvi,  xviii ;  mode 
of  origin  of,  xix,  xxi,  xxiii,  xxv- 
xxix ;  absence  of,  in  newly-formed 
crystals,  xxi,  xxiv. 

Germ-theory  of  disease,  cxx-cxxvii. 

Glanders,  cxxxii. 

Gleocapsa,  origin  of,  ii.  411. 

Gomphonema,  origin  of,  ii.  442. 

Gonidia,  variation  in  modes  of 
growth  of,  ii.  164  ;  of  Algae,  Lich- 
ens, and  Mosses,  indistinguishable 
from  one  another,  Ixxiii. 

Gonidial-cell,  heterogenetic  changes 
in,  ii.  378. 

Goodsir,  Prof.,  on  centres  of  nutri- 
tion, i.  146. 


Graham,  Prof.,  on  colloids,  i.  88, 
»•  53- 

Grant,  Prof.,  views  concerning  evo- 
lution of  living  things,  ii.  165; 
cause  of  organization,  ii.  584. 

Gregarinae,  nature  of,  xcii ;  rela- 
tions of,  to  Amoebae,  xci ;  to  Pso- 
rosperms,  xcii. 

Gros,  Dr.,  transformations  of  chlo- 
rophyll corpuscles  of  Euglense, 
ii.  410;  origin  of  Desmids  and 
Diatoms,  ii.  412  ;  heterogenetic 
changes  in  Astasiae  and  Euglenae, 
ii.  434 ;  transformation  of  Eu- 
glense into  Diatoms,  ii.  444 ;  into 
Micrasterias  and  Arthrodesmus, 
ii.  448;  into  Confervae,  ii.  451; 
origin  of  Mosses  from  Confervae, 
ii.  453;  direct  transformation  of 
Euglenae  into  Ciliated  Infusoria, 
ii.  459 ;  origin  of  Vorticella  as 
outgrowth  from  algoid  filaments, 
ii.  470;  process  of  Pangenesis  in 
Rotifers,  ii.  484 ;  origin  of  Cilia- 
ted  Infusoria  from  Rotifer-eggs, 
ii.  488  ;  ascending  transformations 
of  Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii.  500  ; 
transformation  of  Actinophrys 
into  Ciliated  Infusoria  or  Rotifers, 
ii.  505 ;  of  winter-spore  of  Vol- 
vox  into  Rotifers,  ii.  506 ;  of 
Euglenae  into  Rotifers,  ii.  507 ; 
of  Euglense  into  Nematoids,  ii. 
527;  origin  of  Entozoa,  ii.  539; 
transformations  of  Euglenae  and 
Astasiae,  Ixxxv. 

Grove,  Mr.,  on  correlation  of  phy- 
sical forces,  i.  9,  18. 

Gruithuisen,  on  fermentative  changes 
in  infusions,  i.  418. 

Guerin-Me'neville,  M.,  on  independ- 
ent origin  of  Muscardine,  ii.  326. 


Haeckel,  Prof.,  on  original  evolution 
of  Life,  i.  92  ;  Protista  and  di- 
visions of,  i.  115  ;  reproduction  of 
Protomyxa,  i.  193. 

Halford,  Prof.,  on  snake-poisonings 


/  N  D  E  X. 


XXVll 


Hallier,  Prof.,  on  micrococci,  i.  283. 

Hartig,  Prof.,  on  transformation  of 
Phytozoa  of  Liverworts,  Ixxiv. 

Harvey,  William,  on  Heterogenesis, 
i-  255. 

Hassall,  Dr.  A.  H.,  on  formation  of 
spore  of  Vaucheria,  i.  173. 

Heat,  as  a  mode  of  motion,  i.  7 ; 
relation  of,  to  mechanical  energy, 
i.  8-12  ;  influence  of,  on  vital 
processes,  i.  21 ;  its  relation  to 
nerve  functions,  i.  35 ;  vital  re- 
sistance to,  i.  311;  resistance  of 
spores  of  Fungi  to,  i.  316;  of 
Bacteria  and  Vibriones  to,  i.  317, 
429 ;  dissociating  effect  of,  on 
compounds,  ii.  43. 

Heredity,  law  of,  ii.  94-103. 

Heterogenesis,  i.  245 ;  distinction 
between  Archebiosis  and,  i.  249 ; 
various  modes  in  which  it  may 
occur,  (Table)  i.  252 ;  ancient 
and  modern  views  concerning,  ii. 
172—181 ;  classification  of  varie- 
ties of,  ii.  182  ;  in  products  of 
animal  secretions,  ii.  310;  in  tis- 
sues of  plants,  ii.  317;  frequency 
of,  amongst  lowest  organisms,  ii. 
561  ;  varieties  of,  ii.  563;  origin 
of  Monads,  Fungus-germs,  Ciliata, 
and  Rotifers,  by  synthetic,  ii.  192- 
263,  SH-S^i;  limits  to.,  ii.  539; 
future  researches  connected  with, 
ii.  540  ;  different  varieties  of, 
(Table)  ii.  545. 

Hicks,  Dr.  Braxton,  production  of 
Amoebae  in  moss-radicles,  ii.  376 ; 
of  Monads,  ii.  410 ;  Gleocapsa, 
ii.  41 1  ;  variability  of  lower  Algae 
and  their  relations  to  Lichens  and 
Mosses,  liii-lxxiii. 

Hildgard,  Mr.  T.  C.,  mode  of  origin 
of  Vorticella,  ii.  470;  on  trans- 
formations of  Ciliata,  ii.  495. 

Hofmeister,  on  free  cell-formation 
in  Phanerogamia,  i.  190. 

Holland,  Sir  Henry,  on  spread  of 
Epidemic  Diseases,  cxix. 

Homogeny,  meaning  of  term,  i.  245. 

Hooping-cough,  cxliii,  cliv. 


Huxley,  Prof.,  on  Bathybius,  i.  122 ; 
on  cellular  theory,  i.  158  ;  doc- 
trine concerning  living  matter,  i. 
310;  views  concerning  Individu- 
ality, ii.  553  ;  on  persistent  types, 
ii.  614. 

Hydatina,  origin  of,  from  Chloro- 
coccus  corpuscles,  ii.  514;  from 
Euglenre,  ii.  518. 

Hydrophobia,  cxxx,  cxxxii,  cxlviii. 


Individual,  views  concerning  mean- 
ing of  term,  ii.  542  ;  nature  of,  ii. 
569. 

Individuality,  views  concerning, 
ii-  553  5  objections  to  views  of 
Dr.  Carpenter  and  Prof.  Huxley, 
»•  553-556. 

Influenza,  cxxxix. 

Iron,  influence  of,  on  new-born  pro- 
toplasm, ii.  157. 

Itzigsohn,  on  transformation  of  Os- 
cillatorise,  Ixxxiii. 


Johnson,  Mr.  Metcalfe,  converti- 
bility of  Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii. 
496 ;  transformation  of  these  into 
Rotifers,  ii.  504. 

Jones,  Dr.  Bence,  on  Physical 
Theory  of  Life,  i.  62. 


Lamarck,  doctrines  of,  concerning 
Life,  i.  260 ;  cause  of  Organiza- 
tion, ii.  584. 

Laticiferous  vessels,  alterations  in 
globules  of,  ii.  318. 

Lavoisier,  M.,  on  source  of  animal 
heat,  i.  25. 

Leptothrix  filaments,  description  of, 
i.  277;  development  of,  ii.  138,  xxii. 

Leucocytes,  mode  of  origin  of,  i.  221. 

Lewes,  Mr.  G.  H.,  on  neurility,  i. 
36 ;  life  and  organization,  i  69 ; 
on  multiple  evolutions  of  living 
matter,  ii.  75  ;  on  theories  of  de- 
velopment, ii.  268. 

Lichens,  origin  of  spores  in,  i.  183  ; 


XXV111 


INDEX. 


relations  of,  to  Fungi,  ii.  159;  to 
lower  Algse,  liii-lviii ;  to  Mosses 
and  Fungi,  Ixvi;  interchangeabi- 
lity  of  Algse,  ii.  452. 

Liebig,  Baron,  on  physical  theory  of 
fermentation,  i.  403  ;  analogy  of 
fermentation  to  some  vital  pro- 
cesses, i.  425  ;  formation  of  albu- 
minates  in  plants,  ii.  30. 

Life,  views  of  ancient  philosophers 
concerning,  i.  56 ;  vitalistic  theo- 
ries of,  i.  59 ;  Dr.  Bence  Jones  on 
physical  theory  of,  i.  62 ;  defini- 
tions of,  i.  70-77;  dependent  upon 
certain  material  collocations,  i. 
78 ;  not  abruptly  limited,  i.  79 ; 
speculations  concerning  original 
evolution  of,  i.  93  ;  physical  the- 
ory of,  reconcilable  with  vital 
phenomena,  i.  104;  succession  of, 
on  the  earth,  i.  137-142;  charac- 
teristics of,  displayed  by  proto- 
plasm, i.  153;  doctrines  concern- 
ing, i.  308 ;  destruction  of,  by 
heat,  ii.  3 ;  evolution  of,  ii.  103 ; 
dependence  of,  upon  decomposi- 
tion, ii.  185  ;  theories  concerning, 
ii.  1 74 ;  variability  of  primordial 
forms  of,  ii.  no,  137,  143,  145. 

Lindley,  Dr.,  on  reproduction  of 
Algals  by  zoospores,  i.  171;  on 
zoospores  in  Achlya,  i.  180. 

Lindsay,  Dr.  Lauder,  on  relationship 
between  Fungi  and  Lichens,  ii.  1 59. 

Living  matter,  conversion  of  not- 
living  into,  i.  103,  ii.  77;  no  dis- 
tinct line  between  not-living  and, 
i.  127;  influence  of  heat  upon,.i. 
429 ;  origin  of,  from  colloid  mole- 
cules, ii.  26 ;  process  of  produc- 
tion of,  ii.  27;  the  result  of  mole- 
cular combination,  ii.  27 ;  pro- 
duction of,  in  saline  solutions,  ii. 
30;  influence  of  organic  impuri- 
ties on  evolution  of,  within  closed 
flasks,  ii.  33 ;  influence  of  exter- 
nal conditions  on  development  of, 
ii.  107;  nature  of,  ii.  123;  differ- 
entiation of,  identical  with  organ- 
ization, ii.  127;  discontinuous 


growth  of,  ii.  138;  various  forms 
assumed  by  new-born,  ii.  155 ; 
influence  of  iron  upon,  ii.  158; 
formation  of,  in  living  organisms, 
ii.  185;  homogeneous,  tends  to 
become  heterogeneous,  ii.  585 ; 
heterogeneity  of,  principally  de- 
pendent on  internal  polarities,  ii. 
586  ;  initial  differences  of,  ii.  592  ; 
possibility  of  silicon  replacing 
carbon  in,  x. 

Living  things,  definition  of,  i.  72  ; 
nature  of  matter  of,  i.  83,  96 ; 
origin  of  lowest,  compared  with 
that  of  crystals,  i.  298 ;  resistance 
of,  to  heat,  i.  317,  429;  occur- 
rence of,  in  vacuo,  i.  347-350 ; 
origin  of,  from  organic  matter,  ii. 
308  ;  persistence  of  forms  of  low- 
est, ii.  104-108;  modes  of  origin 
of,  ii.  545 ;  nature  of  lowest,  ii. 
557 ;  Developmental  tendencies 
of,  ii.  558. 

Longet,  on  contractility  of  muscle, 
i.  28. 

Lyell,  Sir  Chas.,  on  geological  re- 
cord, ii.  623. 


Maddox,  Dr.,  on  atmospheric  germs, 
ii.  283. 

Malaria,  cxxxv. 

Man,  origin  of,  ii.  622,  628;  his 
advent,  ii.  628 ;  development  of 
brain  of,  ii.  628,  630 ;  his  intel- 
lectual and  moral  nature,  ii.  629 ; 
probable  date  of  first  appearance, 
ii.  629  ;  limits  to  variation  of  ex- 
ternal form  of,  ii.  630 ;  improve- 
ment in  race  of,  ii.  631  ;  preju- 
dices concerning  origin  of,  ii.  631 ; 
future  of  the  race,  ii.  633. 

Mantegazza,  Prof.,  researches  of,  i. 
263,  434. 

Matter,  indestructibility  of,  i.  3 ;  in- 
separability of  force  and,  i.  4. 

Max  Schultze,  nature  of  cell,  i.  1 50. 

Measles,  cxliii,  cliv. 

Medicine,  practice  of,  influenced  by 
theories,  cix. 


/  N D  EX. 


xxix 


Medusae,  direct  development  of  some 
explained,  ii.  571. 

Metamorphosis  (see  Transforma- 
tion). 

Meunier,  M.  Victor,  experiments  of, 
with  bent-neck  flasks,  ii.  8. 

Micrococci,  Prof.  Hallier,  i.  283. 

Milk-globules,  conversion  of,  into 
fungus-germs,  ii.  310. 

Milne-Edwards,  M.,  on  Pansper- 
mism,  ii.  271. 

Mites,  probable  mode  of  origin  of, 
ii.  540  ;  reproduction  in,  ii.  551. 

Mivart,  Mr.  St.  G.,  on  cause  of  or- 
ganization, ii.  583 ;  on  internal 
tendencies  to,  ii.  60 1. 

Molecular  composition,  nature  of 
bodies  dependent  upon,  ii.  49. 

Monads,  description  of,  i.  267  ;  evo- 
lution of,  ii.  196,  388  ;  origin  of, 
in  pellicle,  ii.  196,  212,  214; 
interchangeability  of  Amoebae 
and,  ii.  218;  origin  of,  from 
embryonal  spheres  of  Nitella,  ii. 
402  ;  from  chlorophyll  corpuscles, 
ii.  409 ;  from  outgrowths  of  Eu- 
glense,  ii.  436 ;  resolution  of  Eu- 
glenae  into,  ii.  440. 

Monera,  growth  and  reproduction 
of,  i.  153. 

Montgomery,  on  cell-forms  assumed 
by  Myeline,  i.  52. 

Mosses,  origin  of,  from  Confervae, 
ii.  452 ;  observations  of  M.  de 
Brebisson  on,  ii.  454 ;  relations  of, 
to  Lichens  and  Algae,  Ixiii-lxvi. 

Moxon,  Dr.,  on  fission  of  Ciliated 
Infusoria,  ii.  291. 

Mucous  membranes,  development  of 
organisms  on,  ii.  345. 

Miiller,  O.  F.,  on  spontaneous  gen- 
eration, ii.  179. 

Mumps,  cxxxix. 

Murchison,  Dr.,  on  origin  of  fevers, 
cxl. 

Murphy,  Mr.,  on  origin  of  species  in 
wild  state,  ii.  598. 

Muscardine,  nature  of,  ii.  324-330. 

Muscle,  contractility  of,  i.  26 ; 
mode  of  action  of,  i.  30;  source 


of  power  in  contraction  of,  i.  33, 

54- 
Mushrooms,  cultivation  of,  ii.  433. 


Nai'des,  a  probable  origin  of,  ii.  540. 

Natural  Selection,  ii.  107  ;  Mr.  Dar- 
win on,  ii.  572 ;  meaning  of 
phrase,  ii.  572-576;  limitation  to 
influence  of,  ii.  573;  two  mean- 
ings of,  ii.  574,  600. 

Nectarine,  convertibility  of,  and 
Peach,  ii.  596,  598. 

Needham,  on  spontaneous  genera- 
tion, i.  258;  theory  of  life,  ii.  174. 

Nematoidea,  development  of  ova 
in,  i.  200 ;  origin  of,  from  Eu- 
glenae,  ii.  466  ;  transformation  of 
Actinophrys  into,  ii.  525;  mode 
of  origin  of,  from  resting-spore  of 
Vaucheria,  ii.  529;  reproduction 
in,  ii.  532. 

Nerve  activity,  source  of  heat  during, 
i.  40. 

Nervous  system,  constituents  of,  i. 
35 ;  functions  of,  dependent  on 
blood-supply,  i.  37;  persistence 
of  function  after  apparent  death, 

i-  37- 

Neurility,  i.  36. 

Newport,  Mr.,  on  vital  forces,  i.  1 7. 

Nicolet,  on  germ-formation  in  Amoe- 
bae, i.  197;  modes  of  origin  of 
Amoebae  and  Actinophrys,  ii.  382  ; 
mode  of  origin  and  transforma- 
tions of  Trichomonas,  ii.  384 ; 
transformations  in  Chara  fila- 
ments, ii.  474 ;  heterogenetic  ori- 
gin of  Rotifers,  ii.  509 ;  on  Amoe- 
bae, xc. 

Nitella,  transformations  in,  ii.  399  ; 
transformations  of  Chlorophyll 
corpuscles  of,  into  Monads  and 
Amoebae,  ii.  407 ;  formation  of 
embryonal  spheres  in,  ii.  400 ; 
their  transformations  into  Bacte- 
ria and  Pythium  corpuscles,  ii. 
401  ;  into  Monads,  ii.  402;  into 
Amoebae  and  Actinophrys,  ii.  404 ; 
into  Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii.  494; 


XXX 


INDEX. 


into  complex  egg-like  bodies,  ii. 
405. 

Nordmann,  M.,  production  of  Cili- 
ated buds  from  embryos  of  Gaste- 
ropods,  ii.  488. 


CEdogonium,  mode  of  origin  of 
'seed-cell'  in,  i.  177. 

Onimus,  M.,  on  mode  of  origin  of 
leucocytes,  i.  221. 

Organic  compounds,  mode  of  for- 
mation of,  in  plants,  i.  23 ;  in- 
fluence of  physical  forces  on  evo- 
lution of,  ii.  38 ;  artificial  pro- 
duction of,  i.  50,  94;  views  con- 
cerning, i.  81. 

Organic  molecules,  Buffon  on,  ii. 
174. 

Organisms,  desiccation  of,  i.  104 ; 
tenacity  of  life  in  lowest,  i.  106 ; 
death  of  higher,  i.  108  ;  degree  of 
individuation  in,  i.  1 1 1 ;  death  in 
lower,  i.  112;  classification  of 
lowest,  i.  114;  vital  resistance  of, 
to  heat,  i.  312  ;  multiplication  of, 
truest  test  of  life,  i.  320;  views 
concerning  origin  of,  ii.  71 ;  on 
independent  evolutions  of,  ii.  75 ; 
reproduction  amongst,  ii.  87-103, 
116  ;  cause  of  reproduction  of,  ii. 
no;  origin  of  green,  ii.  157;  de- 
velopment of  corpuscular,  ii.  198 ; 
segmentation  of  lower,  into  fun- 
gus-germs, ii.  226 ;  mode  of  origin 
of,  in  pellicle,  ii.  235  ;  assump- 
tions respecting,  ii.  254;  origin  of 
living  units  from  pre-existing,  ii. 
308 ;  presence  of,  in  bent-neck 
flasks,  ii.  8  ;  variability  of  lowest, 
ii.  259,  557,  607 ;  modes  of  death 
of,  ii.  37 1 ;  tendency  of,  to  develop 
into  higher,  ii.  432;  convertibility 
of  lower,  ii.  492,  558 ;  influence 
of  size  of  heterogenetic  matrix  on 
forms  of,  ii.  473  ;  modes  of  repro- 
duction in,  ii.  548  ;  frequency  of 
hetercgenesis  amongst  lowest,  ii. 
561  ;  varieties  of  heterogenesis 
.  .arnongst,  ii.  563  ;  limits  to,  ii. 


609,  610;  lowest,  of  present  day, 
their  descent,  ii.  617. 

Organizable  matter,  nature  and 
composition  of,  i.  83 ;  molecular 
re-arrangement  of,  i.  97  ;  physical 
explanation  of  process,  i.  98. 

Organization,  discussion  of  cellular 
theory  of,  i.  158 ;  molecular  theory 
of,  harmonizes  with  evolution  hy- 
pothesis, i.  162  ;  differentiation 
identical  with,  ii.  127  ;  causes 
regulating  complexity  of,  ii.  130; 
existence  of  internal  principle  of, 
ii.  582  ;  internal  tendencies  to,  ii. 
591,  603;  Dr.  Erasmus  Darwin's 
views  on,  ii.  583  ;  Prof.  Owen  and 
Mr.  St.  George  Mivart  on  cause 
of,  ii.  583;  Lamarck  and  Prof. 
Grant  on  cause  of,  ii.  584;  nature 
of  internal  principle  of,  ii.  585 ;  this 
not  believed  in  by  Mr.  Spencer  and 
Mr.  Dai-win,  ii.  585-594  ;  strength 
of  internal  principle  shown  by 
similarity  of  lowest  organisms  in 
different  regions,  ii.  593. 

Origin  of  living  things,  experiments 
relating  to,  with  calcined  air,  i. 
337-343;  different  results  obtained 
by  other  experimenters,  i.  344 ; 
experiments  relating  to,  with  or- 
ganic solutions,  i.  355-360;  re- 
marks on,  i.  360  ;  experiments 
relating  to,  with  saline  solutions, 
i.  363-372;  remarks  on,  i.  372; 
M.  Pasteur's  experiments  and 
views  concerning,  i.  374-384 ; 
comparative  experiments  connect- 
ed with,  i.  385-391,  ii.  18;  dele- 
terious effects  of  acidity  of  solu- 
tion increased  by  heat,  i.  392-396 ; 
experiments  concerning,  in  super- 
heated flasks,  i.  441-470  ;  remarks 
on,  i.  471-475  ;  facilitated  by 
diminution  of  pressure,  ii.  20  ;  oc- 
curring in  organic  solutions,  ii. 
22,  71  ;  theoretical  views  respect- 
ing, ii.  254. 

Otostoma,  origin  and  development, 
ii.  479;  origin  of,  from  Nitella 
filament,  ii.  482. 


I  N  D  E  X. 


XXXI 


Ova,  in  lower  animals,  i.  199-202  ; 
in  higher  animals,  i.  203-211. 

Owen,  Prof.,  on  cause  of  organiza- 
tion, ii.  583  ;  internal  organizing 
tendencies,  ii.  591. 

Oxytricha,  origin  of,  from  Euglense, 
ii.  462  ;  from  Chlorococcus  vesi- 
cles, ii.  467  ;  metamorphosis  of 
Vorticella  into,  ii.  493  ;  transform- 
ation of,  into  Trichoda,  ii.  496. 


Palseontological  Record,  interpreta- 
tion of,  ii,  620;  imperfection  of, 
ii.  622. 

Pangenesis,  Mr.  Darwin's  hypothesis 
of,  ii.  98,  603 ;  previous  use  of 
term  by  Dr.  Gros,  ii.  484; — in 
Tardigrades,  ii.  549 ;  peculiarities 
of,  in  Tardigrades  and  Rotifers, 

».  55i. 

Panspermism,  views  of  Spallanzani 
and  Bonnet  on,  i.  259 ;  nature  of 
theories,  ii.  267 ;  untenability  of 
hypothesis  of,  ii.  305,  359,  367, 
53«. 

Paramecium,  evolution  of,  from 
pellicle,  ii.  240-250;  its  conver- 
sion into  Nassula,  ii.  251 ;  trans- 
formations of,  ii.  496. 

Parasites,  higher,  ii.  309,  539  ; 
lower,  in  blood  of  animals,  ii. 
324-337;  in  tissues  of  plants,  ii. 
317,  338-342;  in  tissues  of  ani- 
mals, ii.  342-358;  within  eggs  of, 
ii.  366. 

Pasteur,  M.,  on  resistance  to  heat  of 
spores  of  fungi,  i.  316;  double 
nature  of  results  in  experiments 

by,  i-  34°.  345»  374.  3845  vital 
theory  of  fermentation,  i.  404  ; 
his  explanation  of  experiments 
with  bent-neck  flasks,  ii.  ii  ;  on 
atmospheric  germs,  ii.  271-275, 
286. 
Peach,  converted  into  Nectarine,  ii. 

596>  598- 
Peacock,    black-shouldered,    origin 

of,  ii.  598. 
P£brine,  nature  of,  ii.  352,  cxxii. 


Pellicle,  formation  of,  on  organic 
infusion,  i.  266;  composition  of, 
i.  277,  ii.  193;  formation  of  em- 
bryonal areas  in,  ii.  198;  remarks 
concerning  changes  in,  ii.  205 ; 
series  of  changes  in,  leading  to 
evolution  of  Monads,  ii.  215; 
other  changes  in,  leading  to  evo- 
lution of  Fungus-germs,  ii.  231- 
235 ;  evolution  of  Ciliated  Infu- 
soria from,  ii.  237-254;  changes 
in,  throw  light  upon  mode  of  ori- 
gin of  living  matter,  ii.  262  ;  con- 
ditions favourable  to  production 
of  Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii.  244,  299. 

Penicillium,  evolution  of,  ii.  195 ; 
conversion  of  milk-globules  into, 
ii.  310. 

Peranemata,  origin  of,  from  Euglenae, 
ii.  459 ;  from  Rotifers,  ii.  484 ; 
conversion  of,  into  Ciliated  Infu- 
soria, ii.  485. 

Peziza,  Corda  on  formation  of  spores 
in,  i.  184. 

Philodinioe,  mode   of  origin   of,   ii. 

5°4- 

Physcia,  formation  of  spore  in,  i. 
186. 

Physical  Forces,  convertibility  of,  i. 
1 3 ;  correlation  of  vital  and,  i. 
16-49,  6°>'  action  of,  upon  living 
tissues,  i.  98 ;  influence  of,  on  evo- 
lution of  organic  compounds,  ii.  38. 

Physiological  units,  ii.  23,  90,  98, 
603, 

Phytoids,  ii.  542,  553. 

Pineau,  M.,  on  formation  of  spore  in 
Physcia,  i.  186;  observations  of 
heterogenetic  changes,  i.  261  ;  on 
origin  of  Penicillium,  ii.  195  ;  of 
Monads,  ii.  196 ;  of  Vorticellse, 
ii.  252,  471 ;  of  Enchelys,  ii.  238  ; 
metamorphoses  of  Vorticellce  into 
Oxytrichse,  ii.  493. 

Plaesconia,  origin  of,  from  Chloro- 
coccus vesicles,  ii.  467. 

Plague,  cxliii. 

Plants,  functions  of,  related  to  those 
of  Animals,  i.  129;  M.  Brong- 
niart  on  development  of,  in  past 


XXX11 


I N D  EX. 


ages,  i.  137;  M.  Saussure  on,  i. 
139;  growth  of,  ii.  27;  occurrence 
of  heterogenesis  in,  ii.  317- 

Plastide-particles,  i.  267,  270. 

Plastides,  i.  152,  267. 

Polarity,  Herbert  Spencer  on  or- 
ganic, ii.  23,  94 ;  its  operation  in 
higher  organisms,  ii.  595  ;  an  ever- 
potent  cause  of  form  and  struc- 
ture, ii.  60 1. 

Pouchet,  M.,  on  vital  force,  i.  248 ; 
on  spontaneous  generation,  i.  263; 
interchangeability  of  forms  of 
Fungi,  ii.  151 ;  heterogenesis  and 
vitalism,  ii.  180;  origin  of  Monads, 
ii.  196  ;  of  Paramecia,  ii.  240;  of 
Vorticellae,  ii.  471 ;  atmospheric 
germs,  ii.  275  ;  apparatus  for 
showing  connection  of  Ciliata 
with  Pellicle,  ii.  300. 

Pringsheim,  Prof.,  on  transformations 
in  Algse,  ii.  374. 

Pritchard,  on  Algse  and  their  allies, 
ii.  1 60;  modes  of  succession  of 
organisms  in  infusions,  ii.  502 ; 
variations  in  habitat  of  Infusoria, 

»•  535- 

Progressive  development,  ii.  583, 
588,  590,  602. 

Protamcebae,  i.  117,  121,  125. 

Protista,  i.  115-126  ;  divisions  of,  i. 
117;  modes  of  reproduction 
amongst,  i.  116,  192,  ii.  548. 

Protococcus,  relation  of,  to  Algse, 
Lichens,  and  Mosses,  ii.  163  ;  pro- 
ducts of  transformations  of,  Ixxxii. 

Protomyxa,  process  of  reproduction 
in,  i.  193. 

Protonema,  changes  of,  Ixvi-lxxii, 

Protoplasm,  properties  of,  i.  127; 
independent  origin  of,  ii.  31,  77. 

Protoplasta,  i.  153;  development  of 
germs  in,  i.  197. 

Psorosperms,  ii.  352,cxxii. 

Puerperal  Fever,  cxxxiv. 

Pyaemia,  cxxxiv. 


Rainey,   Mr.,   on   'molecular   coal- 
escence,' i.  51  ;   on  formation  of 


Calculi,  ii.  60 ;  nature  of  starch- 
grains,  ii.  66. 

Redi,  on  spontaneous  generation,  i. 
257- 

Reissek,  Prof.,  on  metamorphoses 
of  Chlorophyll  corpuscles  and 
pollen -grains,  ii.  432. 

Reproduction,  act  of,  best  sign  of 
life  of  Bacteria,  i.  320;  funda- 
mental nature,  ii.  91 ;  limitations 
of  process  in  complex  organisms, 
ii.  95  ;  in  Rotifers,  ii.  522  ;  sexual 
— mode  of  evolution  of,  ii.  548, 
552;  ultimate  nature  of,  ii.  561 ; 
sexual  modes,  commencement  of, 
ii.  564 ;  nature  of '  alternate '  pro- 
cesses of,  ii.  565. 

Reproduction,  different  modes  of, 
'fable  facing  ii.  552. 

Reproductive  units,  mode  of  origin 
of,  i.  169-214,  232. 

Robin,  Charles,  on  independent 
origin  of  Leucocytes,  i.  220  ; 
blood-change  in  parasitic  dis- 
eases, ii.  361. 

Rotifers,  resolution  of,  into  Actino- 
phrys  and  Peranema,  ii.  484 ; 
into  Arcellinse,  ii.  486 ;  origin  of 
Ciliated  Infusoria  from  eggs  of, 
ii.  488 ;  modes  of  analytic  hetero- 
genesis in,  ii.  489 ;  heterogenetic 
modes  of  origin  of,  ii.  501-523; 
reproduction  in,  ii.  522,  549. 

Rumford,  Count,  heat  as  a  mode  of 
motion,  i.  7. 


Samuelson,  Mr.  James,  on  atmo- 
spheric germs,  ii.  280. 

Sanderson,  Dr.  Burdon,  effect  of 
desiccation  on  Bacteria,  ii.  5  ; 
Microzymes  in  air,  ii.  7 ;  experi- 
ments on  inoculability  of  Tuber- 
cle, cxiv. 

Sang  de  rate,  M.  Davaine  on,  ii.  362. 

Sarcina,  i.  286 ;  nature  of,  iii ;  pro- 
ducts allied  to,  v  ;  bodies  resem- 
bling, in  silicated  solution,  xiv. 

Schaaffhausen,  Prof.,  on  heterogene- 
tic transformations,  ii.  453,  499. 


/ N D  EX. 


XXXlll 


Schelling,  theory  of  life,  i.  77. 

Schleiden,  sources  of  nutriment  of 
plants,  i.  136. 

Schultze,  on  Panspermism,  i.  262. 

Schwann,  on  origin  of  cells,  i.  144  ; 
on  Panspermism,  i.  262  ;  method 
of  experimentation  with  calcined 
air,  i.  337. 

Scolecida,  modes  of  origin  of  repre- 
sentatives of,  ii.  539. 

Seguin,  M.,  on  convertibility  of 
forces,  i.  9. 

Silicates,  solutions  of,  containing 
Fungi,  xi-xiii ;  spiral  fibres,  xiv ; 
bodies  resembling  Sarcina,  xiv. 

Silicon,  as  a  possible  substitute  for 
carbon  in  living  matter,  x. 

Small-pox,  views  on,  cxxvii ;  origin 
of,  cxliv  ;  contagiousness  of,  cxlix. 

Snake-poisoning,  cxxviii,  cxxx. 

Snow-flakes,  ii.  280. 

Solution,  nature  of  process,  ii.  44. 

Spallanzani,  l'Abb6,  on  Pansperm- 
ism, i.  259. 

Species,  meaning  of  term,  ii.  547 ; 
mutability  of,  ii.  548 ;  nothing 
corresponding  to,  amongst  lower 
forms,  ii.  568  ;  nature  of,  ii.  569 ; 
influenced  by  change  in  external 
conditions,  ii.  577-582  ;  by  use 
and  disuse,  ii.  577;  to  what  ex- 
tent influenced  by  natural  selec- 
tion, ii.  578  ;  Darwin  on  influence 
of  new  external  conditions  upon, 
ii.  591  ;  variation  of,  ii.  598  ;  fre- 
quency of  spontaneous  variation  in 
unknown,  ii.  599 ;  modes  in  which 
transmutations  are  brought  about, 
ii.  600 ;  Mr.  Darwin's  views  con- 
cerning, ii.  601-603. 

Spencer,  Mr.  Herbert,  on  converti- 
bility of  forces,  i.  13 ;  on  meaning 
of  persistence  force,  i.  14 ;  corre- 
lation of  vital  and  physical  forces, 
i.  22  ;  consciousness,  i.  45  ;  mor- 
phological development,  i.  52  ; 
characteristics  of  living  things,  i. 
74  ;  elements  of  organizable  mat- 
ter, i.  84;  instability  of  protein 
compounds,  i.  86 ;  original  evolu- 


tion of  life,  i.  92  ;  artificial  evolu- 
tion of  organic  matter,  i.  94;  oper- 
ation of  physical  forces  upon  living 
tissues,  i.  98  ;  evolution  of  living 
matter,  i.  163  ;  organic  polarity, 
ii.  23  ;  physiological  units,  ii.  23, 
90,  98  ;  law  of  heredity,  ii.  94, 
97;  nature  of  evolution,  ii.  120; 
two  meanings  of  natural  selection, 
ii-  573 ;  denies  existence  of  internal 
organizing  tendencies,  ii.  585 ; 
cause  of  organization,  ii.  587 ;  his 
explanation  of  existence  of  undif- 
ferentiated  organisms  in  present 
day,  ii.  587-589;  physiological 
units,  ii.  603  ;  limits  to  variability 
of  species,  ii.  610. 

Spermatozoa,  development  of,  i.  213. 

Sperm-cells,  ii.  96. 

Spiral  fibres,  v  ;  where  found,  viii ; 
in  association  with  mycelium, 
viii  ;  in  silicated  solution,  xiv. 

Spirillum,  i.  277,  ii.  139. 

Spirogyra,    transformations    in,    ii. 

387-393. 
Spontaneous  Generation,  reason  for 

rejecting  term,  i.  244  ;  views  of 

ancient  writers  concerning,  i.  253; 

other  views   concerning,  i.    255- 

263 ;  two  processes  included  under 

term,  ii.  172. 
Spores,  mode   of  formation    of,   in 

CEdogonium,  i.   I77»    in  Zygne- 

meacese,   i.    1 79 ;    in   Fungi   and 

Lichens,  i.  183  ;  in  Peziza,  i.  184; 

in  Hydrodictyon,  i.  186  ;  Physcia, 

i.  186. 

Starch-grains,  production  of,  ii.  65. 
Steenstrup,  on  alternate  generation, 

ii.  565. 
Stein,    views    concerning    Acinetre 

and  Vorticellse,  xciv-xcvii. 
Survival  of  the  fittest,  ii.  575. 
Syphilis,  cxxxii. 


Tables  relating  to : — (i)  origin  of 
living  things,  i.  252  ;  (2)  modes  of 
origin  of  independent  living  units, 
ii.  545 ;  (3)  modes  of  reproduction 


XXXIV 


INDEX. 


with  reference  to  the  origin  and 
gradual  appearance  of  sexual  dif- 
ferentiation, Table  facing  ii.  552 ;  (4) 
modes  of  development  in  relation 
to  sexual  multiplication  occurring 
during  its  progress,  ii.  567 ;  (5) 
causes  which  determine  forms  of 
organisms,  ii.  600;  (6)  communi- 
cable diseases,  cxlvi. 

Tardigrades,  origin  of,  from  Eugle- 
nse,  ii.  466  ;  transformation  of 
Actinophrys  into,  ii.  524;  repro- 
duction in,  ii.  532  ;  Pangenesis  in, 
ii.  549 ;  peculiarities  of  Pangenesis 
in,  ii.  551. 

Theory,  test  of  true,  ii.  605. 

Thomson,  Prof.  Allen,  on  develop- 
ment of  ova  in  Ascarides,  i.  200 ; 
on  individuality,  ii.  556. 

Thomson,  Sir  William,  on  geological 
time,  ii.  619. 

Toruloe,  i.  273  ;  mode  of  origin  of, 
in  solutions,  i.  281  ;  nature  of,  ii. 
141 ;  development  of,  into  Fungi, 
ii.  145-154;  interchangeability  of 
Bacteria  and,  ii.  143  ;  origin  of, 
within  closed  flasks  (see  Arcbebio- 
sis,  experiments  relating  to). 

Transformations,  in  Spirogyra,  ii. 
374>  387 ;  in  Moss-radicles,  ii. 
376  ;  in  Gonidial-cell,  ii.  378;  of 
Trichomonas,  ii.  384 ;  in  Vauche- 
ria,  ii.  394 ;  in  Nitella,  ii.  399 ;  of 
Chlorophyll  vesicles,  ii.  415;  of 
Chlorophyll  vesicles  of  Vaucheria, 
Nitella,  etc.  into  Desmids,  ii.  418; 
of  cell-contents  of  Conferva  into 
Euglense,  ii.  421 ;  of  Spirogyra 
into  Astasiae,  ii.  421  ;  of  Potamo- 
geton  into  Euglense,  ii.  422;  M. 
Kiitzing  on,  of  vegetable  organ- 
isms, ii.  432;  Reissek  on,  of  Chlo- 
rophyll vesicles  and  pollen-grains, 
ii.  432  ;  of  Euglense,  ii.  436-466; 
of  Ciliated  Infusoria,  ii.  492-504; 
of  Actinophrys  into  Rotifers,  ii. 
504 ;  of  Vegetal  vesicles  into  Ro- 
tifers, ii.  506-521  ;  of  Rotifers 
into  Nematoids,  ii.  522  ;  of  Acti- 
nophrys into  Nematoids  and  Tar- 


digrades,  ii.  524;  of  Euglense  into 
Rotifers,  Tardigrades,  and  Nema- 
toids, ii.  525  ;  of  resting-spore  of 
Vaucheria  into  Nematoids, ii.  528. 

Trecul,  M.,  on  development  of  Toru- 
Ise,  ii.  147  ;  origin  of  Amylobacter, 
ii.  318. 

Treviranus,  experiments  in  reference 
to  heterogeny,  i.  259. 

Trichoda,  origin  of,  from  Euglenae, 
ii.  462;  metamorphosis  of  Oxy- 
trica  into,  ii.  496. 

Trichomonas,  origin  and  transform- 
ations of,  ii.  384. 

Tubercle,  non-specific  nature  of, 
cxiii,  cxvii ;  generalization  of,  cxvi. 

Turpin,  M.,  heterogenetic  changes 
in  milk-globules,  ii.  311 ;  mode  of 
origin  of  Uredo,  ii.  339. 

Types,  persistence  of,  ii.  606;  per- 
sistent, Prof.  Huxley  on,  ii.  615; 
explanation  of  persistent,  ii.  616- 
619;  dominant,  ii.  621.  623;  of 
fish  and  insect,  ii.  624  ;  estimation 
of  worth  of,  ii.  625  ;  vertebrate,  ii. 
626  ;  elaboration  of,  ii.  627. 


Units,  physiological,  ii.  23,  90,  98. 
ii.  603. 


Variation,    'spontaneous,'   meaning 
of,  ii.  595 ;  instances  of,  ii.  596- 

599- 

Varicella,  cxliii. 
Vaucheria,  formation  of  spore  of,  i. 

173;  transformations  in,  ii.  394.; 

of  spore  of,  into  Nematoids,  ii. 

528. 
Vegetable  forms;  interchangeability 

of  animal  and,  ii.  431,  434. 
Vibriones,  nature  of,  i.   274;  vital 

resistance  of,  to  heat,  i.  317. 
Virchow,   Prof.,  doctrines  concern- 
ing, i.  148  :  cellular  pathology,  i. 

158  ;  activities  of  tissue-elements, 

i.  167. 
Vital  forces,  correlation  of  physical 

and,  i.  16-49,  6° ;  dependent  on 


INDEX, 


XXXV 


oxidation  of  blood,  i.  48  ;  trans- 
mutation of  physical  force  into,  i. 
67  ;  no  evidence  for  existence  of  a 
special,  i.  83  ;  relation  of  food  to, 
ii.  183. 

Vital  processes,  effect  of  light  and 
heat  upon,  i.  16 ;  amenable  to 
physico-chemical  laws,  i.  54  ;  in- 
explicable nature  of  most  inti- 
mate, i.  55,  ii.  256,  534 ;  analogy 
of  fermentation  to,  i.  425,  ii.  186. 

Vorticellse,  mode  of  origin  of,  ii. 
252  ;  from  Euglense,  ii.  464;  from 
Algoid-vesicles  and  Moss-sporan- 
gia, ii.  469  ;  other  modes  of  ori- 
gin of,  ii.  469  ;  from  filaments  of 
Nitella  and  £hlamydococcus  cor- 
puscles, ii.  470  ;  by  synthetic 
Heterogenesis,  ii.  471  ;  metamor- 
phosis of,  into  Oxytricha,  ii.  493  ; 
into  Rotifers,  ii.  502,  511  ;  origin 
of,  from  Actinophrys,  xcv ;  rela- 
tions of,  to  Acinetse,  xcv  ;  conver- 
sion of,  into  Actinophrys,  xcv. 


Wallace,  Mr.,  on  natural  selection, 
ii.  574;  on  means  of  changing 
colour  in  feathers,  ii.  597  ;  test  of 
true  theory,  ii.  604;  age  of  human 
race,  ii.  629 ;  development  of  brain 
in  man,  ii.  630  ;  future  of  human 
race,  ii.  633. 

Watson,  Sir  Thomas,  on  non-suscep- 
tibility to  contagion  of  small-pox 
and  measles,  cxlix. 

Winter-eggs,  of  Hydatina  senta,  ii. 

514. 

WTyman,  Prof.  Jeffries,  experiments 
relating  to  origin  of  living  matter, 
i.  435 ;  on  analogical  evidence 
concerning  origin  of  living  matter, 
i.  471  ;  on  atmospheric  germs,  ii. 
282. 


Zooids,  ii.  542,  553. 

Zoospores,  mode  of  origin  of,  in  Al- 
gse,  i.  171  ;  formation  of,  in  Vau- 
cheria,  i.  173;  in  Achlya,  i.  180. 


PART    I. 


THE    NATURE    AND    SOURCE 


OF    THE 


VITAL     FORCES, 


AND    OF 


ORGANIZABLE     MATTER. 


THE    BEGINNINGS   OF   LIFE. 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE   PERSISTENCE    OF    FORCE  —  CORRELATION    OF   THE   VITAL 
AND    PHYSICAL    FORCES. 

Indestructibility  of  Matter.  Forces  modes  of  motion.  The  doctrine  of 
Conservation  of  Energy.  History  of.  The  unit  of  Heat.  Con- 
vertibility of  Physical  Forces.  Indestructibility  of  Force.  Gradual 
growth  of  doctrine  of  Correlation  of  Physical  and  Vital  Forces. 
Source  of  Energy  manifested  in  Plants  and  Animals.  Doctrines 
concerning  Animal  Heat.  Its  real  mode  of  Origin.  Power  of 
movement  in  Animals.  Laws  regulating  muscular  Contractility. 
The  Muscle  a  machine  in  which  heat  transforms  itself  into  Me- 
chanical Energy.  Comparison  between  Muscle  and  Steam-  Engine. 
Nervous  phenomena.  Neurility.  Sensory  and  motor  nerves  have 
similar  functions.  Dependence  of  Nerve  action  upon  due  supply 
of  blood.  Remarkable  experiments  illustrating  this.  Evolution  of 
heat  and  increased  chemical  change  accompaniments  of  Nerve 
action.  Different  functions  of  Nervous  System.  Relations  of  Con- 
sciousness and  Mind.  Correlations  of  Consciousness  not  ascertain- 
able.  Conclusions. 


doctrine  that  Matter  is  indestructible  may 
JL  now  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  universally 
accepted  utterances  of  science.  It  is  already  firmly 
rooted,  and  the  belief  in  its  truth  is  gradually  spreading 
deeper  and  wider  as  education  advances.  All  must 
admit  that  there  is  an  immeasurable  difference  between 

B  2 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


mere  change  of  form  and  destruction,  though  in  past 
times — and  even  at  present  amongst  the  uneducated — 
the  former  has  been  often  mistaken  for  the  latter. 
Such  misconceptions,  however,  were  natural  enough 
in  the  past,  and  even  now  they  are  quite  in  harmony 
with  the  defective  general  knowledge  of  those  who 
still  entertain  them:  their  occurrence  does  not  in  the 
least  tend  to  diminish  our  well-grounded  belief  in 
the  indestructibility  of  matter. 

Of  late  years,  too,  experimental  investigators  as 
well  as  purely  speculative  enquirers  have  alike  been 
gradually  tending  towards  the  recognition  of  the  com- 
plemental  doctrine  of  the  essential  oneness  and  inde- 
structibility of  Force.  Matter,  they  say,  is  indestructible, 
and  so  also  is  force.  Forces  are  c  modes  of  motion,' 
and  motion  is  continuous.  The  very  idea  of  motion, 
however,  cannot  be  realized  in  thought  except  it  be 
in  connection  with  a  something  which  moves — though 
the  moving  body  may  be  infinitely  great  or  infinitely 
small.  We  may  imagine  molar  motion,  or  motion  of 
a  mass,  as  exhibited  by  the  revolution  of  a  planet  or 
of  a  sun  in  its  orbit ;  and  we  may  imagine  molecular 
motion  amongst  the  particles  of  a  cosmical  sether,  even 
though  this  aether  itself  may  be  so  subtle  as  to  elude 
all  present  means  of  recognition.  But,  though  motion 
is  inseparable  from  matter,  it  is,  as  we  have  intimated, 
continuous  or  persistent,  and,  therefore,  communicable 
from  particle  to  particle.  Ethereal  pulses  of  solar 
derivation  impinging  upon  the  surface  of  our  earth 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


may  produce  effects  which,  in  part,  manifest  them- 
selves in  our  consciousness  as  sensations  of  heat ;  or, 
acting  upon  other  bodies,  organic  and  inorganic,  may 
in  them  produce  such  molecular  re-arrangements — 
such  modifications  of  form  and  nature — as  will  suffice 
to  alter  their  qualities  or  attributes.  Matter,  then, 
may  undergo  changes  of  form — it  may  be  now  solid, 
now  liquid,  and  now  an  invisible  gas  ;  whilst  the 
disguised  Force  or  Motion,  owing  to  such  different 
modes  of  collocation  of  the  atoms  of  matter,  may 
manifest  itself  to  us  in  different  ways,  but  in  its 
essence  it  remains  as  the  underlying  and  indestruct- 
ible cause  of  the  attributes  of  matter.  So  that  at  the 
same  time  that  force  is  indestructible,  it  is  moreover 
incapable  of  existing  alone  and  independently  of 
matter.  We  cannot  conceive  force  save  as  inhering 
in,  and  appertaining  to  some  body;  we  cannot  con- 
ceive a  body,  or  matter,  existing,  devoid  of  all  at- 
tributes or  force  manifestations.  Both  are  mutable, 
both  indestructible,  and  both,  so  far  as  we  know,  quite 
incapable  of  existing  alone. 

The  growth  of  modern  scientific  opinion  concerning 
force  has  necessarily  had  much  influence  in  modifying 
the  doctrines  concerning  Life  which  were  formerly  in 
vogue.  During  the  present  century  the  labours  of  earnest 
workers  of  all  kinds  have  done  much  towards  the  over- 
throw of  the  ancient  and  long-predominating  meta- 
physical conceptions  of  Life.  Chemists,  physiologists, 
and  others  have  striven  manfully  to  dispel  the  mists 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


and  darkness  which  previously  enshrouded  all  vital 
phenomena,  and  few,  we  suppose,  would  deny  that  the 
results  of  their  labours  had  sent  gleams  of  light  into 
corners  previously  unillumined.  However  much  there 
may  be  of  the  mysterious  and  occult  still  remaining, 
some  of  the  phenomena,  at  least,  formerly  looked  upon 
as  essentially  c vital' — and,  therefore,  well-nigh  in- 
explicable— are  now  recognized  as  depending  in  great 
part  upon  purely  physical  processes.  But  before  stating 
what  are  the  modern  conceptions  of  Life  —  what 
views  are  now  possible — it  will  be  well  to  glance 
briefly  at  the  labours  of  those  who  have  helped  to  build 
up  that  doctrine  of  the  Correlation  of  Forces,  or  Con- 
servation of  Energy,  whose  influence  has  been  so  great 
in  upsetting  the  old  metaphysical  conceptions  to  which 
we  have  referred. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
Conservation  of  Energy  should  have  sprung  fully  formed 
from  the  brain  of  any  single  man.  The  progress  of 
scientific  thought  and  experiment  had  been  gradually 
tending  in  this  direction  during  the  closing  years  of 
the  last  century,  and  the  doctrine  has  since  been  built 
up  and  perfected  by  the  labours  of  many  workers  and 
thinkers.  The  germs  of  it  are,  however,  to  be  found, 
stated  with  remarkable  clearness,  even  more  than  two 
centuries  ago,  in  the  writings  of  Lord  Bacon,  who  says 
in  the  twentieth  Aphorism  of  his  cNovum  Organum:' 
— c  When  I  say  of  motion  that  it  is  the  genus  of  which 
heat  is  a  species,  I  would  be  understood  to  mean,  not 


THE  BEGINNINGS   OF  LIFE. 


that  heat  generates  motion  (though  both  are  true  in 
certain  cases),  but  that  heat  itself,  its  essence  and 

quiddity,  is  motion  and  nothing   else Heat   is 

a  motion,  expansive,  restrained,  and  acting  in  its  strife 
upon  the  smaller  particles  of  bodies  V  Locke,  also, 
shortly  afterwards,  expressed  himself  in  much  the  same 
terms.  He  said: — cHeat  is  a  very  brisk  agitation 
of  the  insensible  parts  of  the  object,  which  produces 
in  us  that  sensation  from  whence  we  denominate 
the  subject  hot-  so  that  what  in  our  sensation  is 
heat^  in  the  object  is  nothing  but  motion?  But  it  was 
not  till  quite  the  close  of  the  last  century,  in  1798, 
that  Benjamin  Thompson,  afterwards  Count  Rumford, 
announced  to  the  Royal  Society  his  conviction,  based 
upon  real  experimental  evidence,  that  heat  was  a 
mode  of  motion.  Whilst  superintending  the  boring 
of  cannon  in  the  military  arsenal  at  Munich,  Count 
Rumford  was  much  struck  with  the  heat  acquired  by 
the  brass  after  it  had  been  bored  for  a  time,  and 
also  with  the  intense  heat  of  the  metallic  chips  which 
were  separated  by  the  borer2.  He  then  instituted 
the  most  careful  experiments  to  ascertain  the  source 
of  this  heat,  and  in  his  memoir,  after  having  de- 
tailed the  nature  and  results  of  these  experiments,  he 
made  the  following  remarks  in  opposition  to  the  then 
prevalent  notion  that  heat  was  a  material  substance, 
a  kind  of  igneous  fluid  named  c caloric:' — cWe  have 

1  Bacon's  Works,  vol.  iv.    Spedding's  Translation. 

2  See  Tyndall's  '  Heat  Considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion,'  1863,  p.  53. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


seen  that  a  very  considerable  quantity  of  heat  may  be 
excited  by  the  friction  of  two  metallic  surfaces,  and 
given  off  in  a  constant  stream  or  flux  in  all  directions y 
without  interruption  or  intermission,  and  without  any 
signs  of  diminution  or  exhaustion.  In  reasoning  on  this 
subject  we  must  not  forget  that  most  remarkable  circum- 
stance^ that  the  source  of  the  heat  generated  by  friction 
in  these  experiments  appeared  evidently  to  be  in- 
exhaustible. It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  any- 
thing which  any  insulated  body  or  system  of  bodies  can 
continue  to  furnish  without  limitation  cannot  possibly 
be  a  material  substance-,  and  it  appears  to  me  to  be 
extremely  difficult,  if  not  quite  impossible,  to  form  any 
distinct  idea  of  anything  capable  of  being  excited  and 
communicated  in  those  experiments,  except  it  be 
MOTION.'  In  1812  also,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  in  his  first 
Memoir1  brought  forward  most  valuable  scientific  evi- 
dence to  show  that  no  such  thing  as  c  caloric '  existed, 
that  heat  was  not  an  elastic  fluid,  and  that  the  c  laws 
of  the  communication  of  heat  are  precisely  the  same  as 
those  of  the  communication  of  motion.'  One  of  his 
experiments  was  of  the  most  conclusive  nature.  c  He 
succeeded  in  melting  two  pieces  of  ice  by  rubbing 
them  together  in  vacuo,  at  the  same  time  preventing 
the  access  of  external  heat.  The  water  produced  in 
this  experiment  has  a  much  higher  relative  heat  than 
the  ice;  hence  the  potential  heat  which  caused  the  ice 
to  melt  must  have  been  obtained  by  the  conversion  of 

1  Sir  Humphrey  Davy's  Works,  vol.  ii. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


the  mechanical  force  employed  for  the  friction  V  For, 
as  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  reasoned,  a  motion  or  vibration 
of  the  corpuscles  of  bodies  must  be  necessarily  gener- 
ated by  friction  and  percussion,  and  so,  he  adds,  c  we 
may  reasonably  conclude  that  this  motion  or  vibra- 
tion is  heat,  or  the  repulsive  power.'  Then,  in  1827, 
Lardner  Vanuxem  published  in  Philadelphia  an  essay2 
in  which  he  speaks  of  caloric,  light,  electricity,  and 
magnetism  as  being  mutually  convertible.  His  utter- 
ances are,  however,  somewhat  dubious,  since  he  at 
first  treats  of  them  as  cfour  different  states'  of  cone 
kind  of  repulsive  matter',  though,  further  on,  he  ac- 
knowledges that  the  existence  of  these  as  cfour  dis- 
tinct fluids,  or  kinds  of  aethereal  matter,  is  inadmis- 
sible; for  this  conversion  or  change  of  characters  is 
analogous  to  what  are  called  the  properties  of  bodies 
and  not  to  the  bodies  themselves.'  Again,  in  1839, 
Seguin,  in  a  work  entitled  '  De  {'Influence  des  Chemins 
de  Fer,'  called  attention  to  the  mutual  convertibility  of 
heat  and  mechanical  force,  and  he  gave  a  calculation 
of  their  equivalent  relation  not  differing  materially 
from  that  afterwards  published  by  Mayer  and  Joule. 
In  January,  1842,  in  a  lecture  delivered  before  the 
Royal  Institution,  Professor  Grove  declared  that  c  light, 
heat,  electricity,  magnetism,  motion,  and  chemical 
affinity  are  all  convertible  material  affections;'  and  in 

1  Orme's  '  Science  of  Heat,'  1869,  p.  163. 

2  'On  the  Ultimate   Principles  of  Chemistry,   Natural   Philosophy , 
and  Physiology.' 


10  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  recently  published  third  edition  of  his  c  Correlation 
of  the  Physical  Forces,'  he  says,  c  As  far  as  I  am  now 
aware,  the  theory  that  the  so-called  imponderables  are 
affections  of  ordinary  matter,  that  they  are  resolvable 
into  motion,  that  they  are  to  be  regarded  in  their 
action  on  matter  as  forces,  and  not  as  specific  entities, 
and  that  they  are  capable  of  mutual  reaction,  thence 
alternately  acting  as  cause  and  effect,  had  not  at  that 
time  been  publicly  advanced/  But  it  was  also  in  the 
year  1842,  though  in  its  latter  part,  that  Dr.  Mayer1, 
a  physician  of  Heilbronn,  announced  independently 
a  doctrine  substantially  similar,  to  the  effect  that  the 
imponderables  were  forces  at  once  indestructible  and 
convertible.  He  actually  calculated  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat  out  of  data  derived  from  the  velocity 
of  sound  in  air — an  intellectual  feat  only  possible  to 
a  man  of  rare  originality.  Professor  Tyndall  says  2  of 
him,  c  When  we  consider  the  circumstances  of  Mayer's 
life,  and  the  period  at  which  he  wrote,  we  cannot  fail 
to  be  struck  with  astonishment  at  what  he  has  ac- 
complished. Here  was  a  man  of  genius  working  in 
silence,  animated  solely  by  a  love  of  his  subject,  and 
arriving  at  the  most  important  results  some  time  in 
advance  of  those  whose  lives  were  entirely  devoted 
to  Natural  Philosophy.  It  was  the  accident  of  bleeding 
a  feverish  patient  at  Java,  in  1 840,  that  led  Mayer  to 

1  '  Bemerkungen   iiber   die   Krafte   der   umbeleten   Natur,'   Liebig's 
Annalen,  1842,  vol.  xlii. 

2  Loc.  cit.  p.  445. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  1 1 

speculate  on  these  subjects.  He  noticed  that  the 
venous  blood  of  the  tropics  was  of  a  much  brighter  red 
than  in  colder  latitudes,  and  his  reasoning  on  this  fact 
led  him  into  the  laboratory  of  natural  forces,  where  he 
has  worked  with  such  signal  ability  and  success/  But 
in  the  following  year,  1843,  Mr.  Joule  of  Manchester 
published  his  first  paper  on  the  c  Mechanical  Value  of 
Heat,'  in  which  he  detailed  the  most  valuable  results 
of  a  series  of  experiments,  conducted  whilst  he  was 
in  ignorance  of  the  labours  of  Seguin  and  of  the  reason- 
ings of  Mayer.  It  is  to  him  that  we  are  principally 
indebted  for  the  actual  experimental  determination  of 
the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat.  A  paddle-wheel 
was  made  to  revolve  in  a  copper  vessel  containing 
a  weighed  quantity  pf  water  at  a  known  temperature, 
The  mechanical  force,  derived  from  falling  weights, 
which  was  employed  in  turning  the  wheel  was  known ; 
so  that  when,  after  the  wheel  had  revolved  for  a  cer- 
tain time,  the  temperature  of  the  water  was  estimated, 
and  the  distance  through  which  the  weights  had  fallen 
in  the  same  time  was  computed,  it  became  easy  to 
estimate  the  quantity  of  heat  which  corresponded  to 
the  fall  of  a  known  weight  through  a  given  distance. 
Of  course,  corrections  had  to  be  made,  allowing  for 
the  heating  of  the  copper  vessel,  and  of  the  wheel  itself, 
as  well  as  for  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation.  Similar 
experiments  were  conducted  with  oil  and  with  mer- 
cury, though  under  somewhat  different  conditions  -y  and 
in  all  cases  the  amount  of  heat  evolved  by  the  friction 


1 2  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

of  the  vanes  of  the  wheel  against  the  various  fluids 
was  ascertained  with  the  greatest  care.  The  uniform 
results  obtained  in  these  experiments  enabled  Mr.  Joule 
most  satisfactorily  to  establish  the  mechanical  equiva- 
lent of  what  has  been  termed  the  unit  of  heat.  He 
found  that  the  energy  of  a  body  weighing  one  pound 
which  had  fallen  from  a  height  of  772  feet  was  exactly 
equal  to  the  quantity  of  molecular  motion  or  heat 
which  suffices  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of 
water  by  one  degree  of  the  Fahrenheit  scale1. 

It  is  needless  for  us  to  follow  further  the  ultimate 
developments  of  this  doctrine  with  which  the  names 
of  Clausius,  Rankine,  Thomson,  and  Helmholtz  are 
associated.  We  have  called  attention  to  the  experi- 
ments and  reasonings  by  which  it  has  been  shown  that 
an  exact  relation  of  equivalence  exists  between  the 
motion  of  masses  produced  by  mechanical  force,  and 
the  motion  of  the  particles  of  bodies  manifesting  itself 
as  heat  produced  by  friction.  Heat,  therefore,  has  been 
indubitably  established  to  be  a  cmode  of  motion;'  and 
there  is  the  very  best  reason  for  believing  that  all  the 
other  forces  or  affections  of  matter  are  similarly  re- 
lated to  motion,  whilst  they  are  also  mutually  con- 
vertible. Each  alike  may  arise  from,  or  may  give  origin 
to  motion  either  directly  or  indirectly. 

1  The  '  unit  of  heat '  therefore,  or  that  amount  of  heat  which  will 
raise  a  pound  of  water  i°  Fahr,  is  equal  to  772  'foot-pounds,'  if  we 
call  the  actual  energy  of  a  body  weighing  one  pound  which  has  fallen 
one  foot,  a  foot-pound. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  13 

By  the  rubbing  of  substances  of  a  different  nature 
together  electricity  is  produced,  as  in  the  ordinary 
electrical  machine.  Magnetism,  again,  may  result  from 
motion;  either  immediately,  in  a  bar  of  soft  iron, 
through  a  repetition  of  percussions,  which,  producing 
motion  amongst  the  particles  of  the  bar,  facilitate  their 
assumption  of  the  magnetic  mode  of  collocation;  or 
mediately  through  the  intervention  of  electricity  which 
lias  itself  been  generated  by  motion.  And,  as  Mr.  Her- 
bert Spencer  says 1,  c  The  transformations  of  electricity 
into  other  modes  of  force  are  still  more  clearly  demon- 
strable. Produced  by  the  motions  of  heterogeneous 
bodies  in  contact,  electricity,  through  attractions  and 
repulsions,  will  immediately  reproduce  motion  in  neigh- 
bouring bodies.  Now  a  current  of  electricity  generates 
magnetism  in  a  bar  of  soft  iron  ;  and  now  the  rotation 
of  a  permanent  magnet  generates  currents  of  elec- 
tricity. Here  we  have  a  battery  in  which,  from  the 
play  of  chemical  affinities,  an  electric  current  results; 
and  there,  in  the  adjacent  cell,  we  have  an  electric 
current  effecting  chemical  decomposition.  In  the  con- 
ducting wire  we  witness  the  transformation  of  elec- 
tricity into  heat ;  while  in  the  electric  sparks  and  in 
the  voltaic  arc  we  see  light  produced That  mag- 
netism produces  motion  is  the  ordinary  evidence  we 
have  of  its  existence.  In  the  magneto-electric  machine 
we  see  a  rotating  magnet  evolving  electricity.  And 

1  '  First  Principles,'  p.  254. 


14  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  electricity  so  evolved  may  immediately  after  ex- 
hibit itself  as  heat,  light,  or  chemical  affinity.  Faraday's 
discovery  of  the  effect  of  magnetism  on  polarized  light, 
as  well  as  the  discovery  that  change  of  magnetic  state 
is  accompanied  by  heat,  point  to  further  like  con- 
nections. Lastly,  various  experiments  show  that  the 
magnetization  of  a  body  alters  its  internal  structure ; 
and  that,  conversely,  the  alteration  of  its  internal  struc- 
ture, as  by  mechanical  strain,  alters  its  magnetic  con- 
dition/ We  need  allude  to  all  these  possibilities  of 
change  no  further ;  those  who  wish  for  additional  in- 
formation may  find  it  in  Mr.  Grove's  work. 

The  most  attentive  consideration  of  the  facts  forces 
us  to  the  conclusion — even  to  an  irresistible  belief — 
that  though  continually  varying  in  its  modes,  Force 
itself  is  indestructible  or  persistent.  As  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  says,  such  an  allegation  really  amounts  to  this, 
that  a  priori  possibilities  and  experimental  evidence 
alike  warrant  us  in  the  belief  cthat  there  cannot 
be  an  isolated  force  beginning  and  ending  in  no- 
thing ;  but  that  any  force  manifested  implies  an 
equal  antecedent  force  from  which  it  is  derived,  and 
against  which  it  is  a  reaction.  Further,  that  the  force 
so  originating  cannot  disappear  without  result-  but 
must  expend  itself  in  some  other  manifestation  of 
force,  which,  in  being  produced,  becomes  its  reaction  ; 
and  so  on  continually.' 

If  forces  are  nothing  but  the  inseparable  qualities, 
attributes,  or  affections  of  matter,  and  if  matter  is 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  15 

itself  indestructible,  then,  of  course,  it  must  follow  as 
an  a  priori  necessity  that  forces,  or  the  attributes  of 
matter,  are  also  indestructible  \  As  Professor  Faraday 
expresses  it 2,  c  a  particle  of  oxygen  is  ever  a  particle 
of  oxygen — nothing  can  in  the  least  wear  it.  If  it 
enter  into  combination  and  disappear  as  oxygen — if 
it  pass  through  a  thousand  combinations,  animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral — if  it  lie  hid  for  a  thousand 
years,  and  then  be  evolved,  it  is  oxygen  with  its  first 
qualities.  Neither  more  nor  less.  It  has  all  its  original 
force,  and  only  that ;  the  amount  of  force  which  it  dis- 
engaged when  hiding  itself  has  again  to  be  employed 

in  a  reverse  direction  when  it  is  set  at  liberty 

Just  as  the  chemist  owes  all  the  perfection  of  his  ex- 
periments to  his  dependence  on  the  certainty  of  gravita- 
tion applied  by  the  balance,  so  may  the  physical  philo- 
sopher expect  to  find  the  greatest  security  and  the 
utmost  aid  in  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of  force. 


1  Those  who  wish  to  follow  this  subject  further,  and  to  understand 
what  are  its  ultimate  implications,  cannot  do  better  than  read  chapters 
vi.-ix.  of  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer's  '  First  Principles.'  They  will  then  see 
that  'persistence  of  force '  is  really  the  most  ultimate  notion,  on  which  the 
doctrine  of  the  '  indestructibility  of  matter '  as  well  as  that  of  the 
'  continuity  of  motion  '  are  alike  dependent.  He  says : — '  By  the  Per- 
sistence of  Force,  we  really  mean  the  persistence  of  some  power  which 
transcends  our  knowledge  and  conception.  The  manifestations  either 
as  occurring  in  ourselves  or  outside  of  us  do  not  persist ;  but  that 
which  persists  is  the  Unknown  Cause  of  these  manifestations.  In  other 
words,  asserting  the  persistence  of  force  is  but  another  mode  of  asserting 
an  Unconditional  Reality,  without  beginning  or  end.' — p.  255,  ist  edit. 

2  '  Researches  in  Chemistry,'  pp.  454,  459. 


1 6  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

All  that  we  have  that  is  good  and  safe,  as  the  steam- 
engine,  the  electric  telegraph,  &c.,  witness  to  that 
principle.  It  would  require  a  perpetual  motion,  a  fire 
without  heat,  heat  without  a  source,  action  without 
reaction,  cause  without  effect,  or  effect  without  a  cause, 
to  displace  it  from  its  rank  as  a  law  of  nature.'  The 
time,  therefore,  must  come  when  the  really  funda- 
mental doctrine  of  the  persistence  or  indestructibility 
of  Force  will  be  recognized  by  all  educated  persons 
to  have  an  equal  validity  with  the  secondary,  though 
more  familiar,  doctrine  of  the  indestructibility  of 
Matter.  The  two  doctrines  are  correlatives,  and  the 
admission  of  one  implies  the  truth  of  the  other  as  a 
necessary  consequence. 

Having  come  to  an  understanding  as  to  what  views 
we  are  to  take  of  Force  and  of  the  mutual  relations 
of  the  several  physical  forces,  we  now  have  to  enquire 
as  to  the  relation  in  which  these  stand  to  the  so-called 
c  vital  forces '  manifested  by  Living  Organisms. 

The  first  real1  step  in   explanation  was   taken   in 

1  In  an  'Inaugural  Address,'  delivered  in  1868  at  the  Jeafferson 
Medical  College,  U.S.,  by  Dr.  J.  Aitken  Meigs,  he  claims  the  credit  for 
Dr.  Metcalfe  of  having  initiated  this  part  of  the  doctrine.  These 
claims,  and  also  others  concerning  Lardner  Vanuxem,  have  been  con- 
sidered in  the  'British  Medical  Journal/  January  16,  1869,  p.  50.  Dr. 
Metcalfe's  work,  published  two  years  earlier,  in  1843,  was  entitled,  'On 
Caloric ;  its  Mechanical,  Chemical,  and  Vital  Agencies  in  the  Pheno- 
mena of  Nature.'  Dr.  Metcalfe  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  much 
power  and  originality,  though  he  still  looked  upon  heat  as  a  material 
substance,  an  elastic  fluid  named  caloric.  This  view,  of  course,  vitiates 
his  treatment  of  the  subject,  though  it  seems  clear,  from  the  passage 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  17 

1845  ty  Mayer  of  Heilbronn,  in  a  memoir  on  c  Organic 
Movement  in  its  Relation  to  Material  Changes/  in 
which  he  showed  that  the  processes  taking  place  in 
living  organisms,  animal  or  vegetable,  were  produced 
by  forces  acting  upon  them  from  without,  and  that 
the  changes  in  their  composition  brought  about  by 
these  external  agencies  were  the  immediate  sources 
of  those  modes  of  force  apparently  generated  in  the 
organisms  themselves.  In  the  same  year  also  Mr. 
Newport  was  led  by  a  consideration  of  the  relations 
which  had  been  shown  to  exist  between  light  and 
electricity  by  Faraday,  and  between  electricity  and 
nervous  power  by  Matte ucci  *,  as  well  as  '  by  the 
known  dependence  of  most  of  the  functions  of  the 
body  on  the  latter,  to  consider  light  as  the  primary 
source  of  all  vital  and  constructive  power,  the  de- 
grees and  variations  of  which  may,  perhaps,  be  re- 
ferred to  modifications  of  this  influence  on  the  special 
organization  of  each  animal  body2.'  In  the  following 

which  we  subjoin,  that  his  notions  otherwise  were  verging  in  the  right 
direction.  '  All  the  chemical  changes,'  he  says,  '  that  mark  the  course 
of  nature,  are  attended  with  changes  of  temperature,  from  the  slowest 
process  of  fermentation  to  the  most  rapid  combustion ;  that  is,  all  the 
decompositions  and  recombinations  of  matter  are  attended  with  the 
addition  or  subtraction  of  caloric.  Without  the  continual  agency  of  the 
solar  beams,  the  vital  air,  the  ocean,  and  the  solid  ground  would  become 
a  motionless  mass  of  inert  and  chaotic  matter.  Without  the  reception 
of  caloric  from  the  atmosphere  by  respiration,  the  wonderful  mechanism 
of  animal  motion,  sensation,  and  life,  could  not  go  on.' 

1  Physical  Phenomena  of  living  beings. 

2  This  passage  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  '  Athenaeum '  for  Dec.  6, 

C 


1 8  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

year  Mr.  Grove  published  his  now  well-known  work 
on  the  c  Correlation  of  the  Physical  Forces/  and  in 
this,  after  having  spoken  of  the  relations  existing 
between  the  several  physical  forces,  he  said,  CI  be- 
lieve that  the  same  principles  and  mode  of  reasoning 
might  be  applied  to  the  organic,  as  well  as  to  the 
inorganic  world;  and  that  muscular  force,  animal 
and  vegetable  heat,  &c.,  might,  and  at  some  time 
will,  be  shown  to  have  similar  definite  correlations/ 
This  view  was  taken  up  by  Dr.  Carpenter,  and  was 
much  more  fully  elaborated  by  him.  In  an  article 
contributed  to  the  c  British  and  Foreign  Medico- 
Chirurgical  Review'  for  January,  1848,  Dr.  Carpenter 
maintained  c  that  the  vita/  forces,  of  various  kinds, 
bear  the  same  relation  to  the  several  physical  forces 
of  the  inorganic  world  that  they  bear  to  each  other; 
the  great  essential  modification  or  transformation 
being  effected  by  their  passage,  so  to  speak,  through 
the  germ  of  the  organic  structure,  somewhat  after  the 
same  fashion  that  heat  becomes  electricity  when  passed 
through  certain  mixtures  of  metals/  Then,  in  1850, 
a  memoir  was  read  before  the  Royal  Society,  and  after- 
wards published  in  the  c  Philosophical  Transactions/ 
entitled,  c  On  the  Mutual  Relations  of  the  Vital  and 
Physical  Forces,'  in  which  the  whole  doctrine  was  much 

1845.  Though  it  originally  formed  part  of  a  paper  which  afterwards 
appeared  in  the  2Oth  vol.  of  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Linnaean  Society, 
but  from  which  this  particular  passage  was  omitted  by  desire  of  the 
officers  of  the  Society. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  19 

more  fully  discussed,  and  Dr.  Carpenter  laboured  most 
successfully  to  show  c  that  so  close  a  mutual  relation- 
ship exists  between  all  the  vital  forces,  that  they  may 
be  legitimately  regarded  as  modes  of  one  and  the  same 
force  V  And  he  also  maintained  that  these  so-called 
vital  forces  were  evolved  within  the  living  bodies  of 
plants  and  of  the  lower  animals  by  the  transformation 
of  the  light,  heat,  and  chemical  action  obtained  from 
without,  which  were  given  back  to  the  external  world 
again,  either  during  the  life  of  the  living  beings,  or 
after  their  death,  in  terms  of  motion  and  heat,  and 
also,  to  a  slight  extent,  in  the  form  of  light  and  elec- 
tricity. These  doctrines  are  thus  definitely  expressed 
by  him 2 : — c  The  vital  force  which  causes  the  prim- 
ordial cell  of  the  germ  first  to  multiply  itself,  and 
then  to  develope  itself  into  a  complex  and  extensive 
organism,  was  not  either  originally  locked  up  in  that 
single  cell,  nor  was  it  latent  in  the  materials  which 
are  progressively  assimilated  by  itself  and  its  descend- 
ants5; but  it  is  directly  and  immediately  supplied  by 

1  In  unicellular  organisms,  all  the  vital  functions,  so  far  as  they  are 
differentiated,  are  carried  on  in  the  single  cell ;  and  in  the  higher  animals 
which  proceed  from  the  growth  and  development  of  some  single,  equally 
minute  germ,  specialization  of  function  goes  hand  and  hand  with  spe- 
cialization of  structure. 

2  Loc.  cit.  pp.  752-756. 

3  This  holds  good  for  plants,  the  lowest   animals,  and   the  initial 
changes  in  the  higher  animals,  though  all  the  later  vital  manifestations 
of  the  latter  are  dependent  almost  entirely  upon  the  redistribution  of  the 
forces  pertaining  to  the  organic  substances  which  constitute  their  food, 
and  to  the  various  chemical  changes  taking  place  within  their  own 

C  2 


20  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  heat  which  is  constantly  operating  upon  it,  and 
which  is  transformed  into  'vital  force  by  its  passage  through 

the   organised  fabric  'which  manifests  it All  the 

forces  which  are  operating  in  producing  the  phenomena 
of  life  are  in  the  first  place  derived  from  the  inor- 
ganic universe,  and  are  finally  restored  to  it  again. 
....  And  there  is  strong  reason  to  believe  that  the 
entire  amount  of  force  of  all  kinds  received  by  an 
animal  during  a  given  period  is  given  back  by  it  during 
that  period,  his  condition  at  the  end  of  the  time  being 
the  same  as  at  the  beginning.  And  all  that  has  been 
expended  in  the  building  up  of  the  organism  is  given 
back  by  its  decay  after  death.' 

In  plants  and  in  the  lower  tribes  of  animals  we  are 
able  to  trace  a  most  undoubted  relationship  between 
the  vital  activity  of  each  individual  and  the  amount 
of  heat  which  it  receives  from  external  sources.  Even 


bodies.  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  says : — '  We  have  next  to  note,  as  having 
here  a  meaning  for  us,  the  chemical  contrasts  between  those  organisms 
which  carry  on  their  functions  by  the  help  of  external  forces,  and  those 
which  carry  on  their  functions  by  forces  evolved  from  within.  If 
we  compare  animals  and  plants,  we  see  that  whereas  plants,  charac- 
terised as  a  class  by  containing  but  little  nitrogen,  are  dependent  upon 
the  solar  rays  for  their  vital  activities ;  animals,  the  .vital  activities  of 
which  are  not  thus  dependent,  mainly  consist  of  nitrogenous  substances. 
There  is  one  marked  exception  to  this  broad  distinction,  however ;  and 
this  exception  is  specially  instructive.  Among  plants  there  is  a  con- 
siderable  group — the  Fungi — many  members  of  which,  if  not  all,  can 
live  and  grow  in  the  dark ;  and  it  is  their  peculiarity  that  they  are  very 
much  more  nitiogenous  than  other  plants.'  (Principles  of  Biology,  1864, 
vol.  i.  p.  37.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  21 

in  1837,  M.  Boussingault,  after  contrasting  the  meteor- 
ological circumstances  in  which  wheat,  barley,  Indian 
corn,  and  the  potato  are  developed  at  the  equator  and 
in  the  temperate  zones,  with  their  different  rates  of 
growth  in  these  situations,  came  to  the  conclusion  cthat 
the  same  annual  plant  everywhere  receives  the  same 
quantity  of  heat  in  the  course  of  its  existence.'  And 
in  one  of  his  more  recent  works,  speaking  of  the  Fora- 
minifera,  Dr.  Carpenter  says1,  c  We  have  found  strong 
reason  for  regarding  temperature  as  exerting  a  most  im- 
portant influence  in  favouring,  not  merely  increase  in 
size,  but  specialization  of  development:  all  the  most 
complicated  and  specialized  forms  at  present  known 
being  denizens  either  of  tropical  or  sub-tropical  seas,  and 
many  of  these  being  represented  in  the  seas  of  colder 
regions  by  comparatively  insignificant  examples  which 
there  seems  adequate  reason  for  regarding  as  of  the 
same  specific  types  with  the  tropical  forms,  even  though 
deficient  in  some  of  their  apparently  most  important 
features/  That  the  rate  of  growth  in  plants  depends 
most  notably  upon  the  amount  of  light  and  heat  to 
which  they  are  subjected  is  a  fact  familiar  to  most  of 
us.  The  stimulation  of  the  vital  processes  by  heat  is, 
indeed,  most  easy  of  demonstration  in  some  cases.  It 
is  now  perfectly  well  known  that  in  Valisneria^  Chara^ 
Anacharls^  and  other  plants  in  the  cells  of  which  there 
is  a  well-marked  cyclosis,  the  rate  of  revolution  of  the 

1  'Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Foraminifera '  (Ray  Soc.),  1862, 
p.  9. 


22  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

particles  of  protoplasm  is,  within  certain  limits,  di- 
rectly dependent  upon  temperature.  By  variations  of 
this,  the  rapidity  of  movement  of  the  particles  in 
the  cell  may  be  seen  to  be  increased  or  diminished 
at  pleasure.  The  amoeboid  activity  of  a  white  blood 
corpuscle  or  of  a  pus  corpuscle  is  similarly  stimu- 
lated, within  certain  limits,  by  the  influence  of  heat. 
We  know  also  that  the  hatching  of  eggs  and  the 
germination  of  seeds  may  be  likewise  hastened  or 
retarded  by  access  or  deprivation  of  heat.  Considera- 
tions such  as  these  at  first  suggested  the  doctrine  of 
the  Correlation  of  the  Vital  and  the  Physical  Forces, 
—a  doctrine  which  has  been  slowly,  though  surely,  gain- 
ing ground  since  the  date  of  its  first  announcement. 
More  and  more  evidence  is  gradually  being  accumu- 
lated in  its  favour,  so  that  we  now  find  Professor 
Frankland  alluding  to  it  in  these  terms: — cNo  one 
possessing  any  knowledge  of  physical  science  would 
now  venture  to  hold  that  vital  force1  is  the  source 
of  muscular  power.  An  animal,  however  high  its  or- 
ganization, can  no  more  generate  an  amount  of  force 
capable  of  moving  a  grain  of  sand,  than  a  stone  can 
fall  upwards,  or  a  locomotive  drive  a  train  without  fuel.' 
Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  also,  speaking  of  the  same  doc- 
trine, says  2, c It  is  a  corollary  from  that  primordial  truth 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  underlies  all  other  truths,  that 

1  That  is,  any  peculiar  force  existing  of  and  I>y  itself,  independently  of 
nil  the  physical  forces.     See  Proceed,  of  Royal  Institution,  June  8,  1866. 
8  '  Principles  of  Biology,'  vol.  i.  p.  57. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  23 

whatever  amount  of  power  an  organism  expends  in  any 
shape,  is  the  correlate  and  c-ijuivalcnt  of  a  power  that 
was  taken  into  it  from  without.  On  the  one  hand,  it 
follows  from  the  persistence  of  force,  that  each  portion 
of  mechanical  or  other  energy  which  an  organism 
exerts,  implies  the  transformation  of  as  much  organic 
matter  as  contained  this  energy  in  a  latent  state.  And 
on  the  other  hand,  it  follows  from  the  persistence  of 
force  that  no  such  transformation  of  organic  matter 
containing  this  latent  energy  can  take  place  without 
the  energy  being  in  one  shape  or  other  manifested.' 

We  shall  find  it  worth  our  while,  however,  to  follow 
up  a  little  more  fully  the  details  of  this  most  important 
doctrine,  as  it  will  aid  us  so  much  in  forming  a  true 
conception  as  to  the  nature  of  Life. 

As  pointed  out  by  M.  Gavarret l,  most  of  the  physi- 
cal force  which,  in  the  form  of  light  and  heat,  impinges 
upon  a  plant,  is  consumed  therein  (travail  mttrleur}.  It 
is  stored  up  as  potential  force  in  the  complex  organic 
substances  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  plant ; 
these  being  produced  therein  (under  the  influence  of 
the  already  existing  living  tissues)  by  the  action  of 
physical  forces  upon  the  not-living  constituents  of  the 
earth,  air,  and  water  by  which  the  plant  was  surrounded. 
The  animal,  on  the  contrary,  liberating  and  using  these 
forces  which  have  been  stored  up  by  the  plant — after 
assimilating  its  substance  in  the  form  of  food — expends 
them  in  the  production  of  that  travail  ext'crieur  which 
1  '  Ph«5nomoncs  Physiques  cle  la  Vie,'  1869,  Paris  p.  73. 


24  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  animaFs  nature  and  the  necessities  of  its  existence 
compel  it  to  manifest.  Animals  display,  in  varying 
proportions,  three  principal  modes  of  vital  activity 
which  testify  to  the  continual  liberation  of  force  within 
them  :— (i)  they  appear  to  produce  heat;  (2)  they  move, 
by  reason  of  the  contractility  of  certain  tissues ;  and 
(3)  they  display  certain  nervous  phenomena. 

i.  Very  many  animals  constantly  maintain  them- 
selves at  a  temperature  above  that  of  the  medium  in 
which  they  live;  this  being  more  especially  the  case 
with  the  so-called  warm-blooded  animals — amongst  which 
birds  are  most  remarkable  for  the  very  great  difference 
existing  between  their  temperature  and  that  of  the  air. 
The  cause  of  this  difference  in  temperature  between 
the  animal  and  its  medium  has  been  variously  explained 
at  different  times.  It  was  believed  by  Galen  that  heat 
was  actually  produced  de  novo  in  the  left  ventricle  of 
the  heart ;  and  even  John  Hunter  thought  that  the  pro- 
duction of  animal  heat  depended  upon  a  special  vital 
force  or  principle,  which  was  able  not  only  to  produce 
but  actually  to  destroy  heat.  Others — and  that  even 
in  comparatively  recent  times — have  striven  to  prove 
that  some  principle  resident  in  the  nervous  system  was 
capable  of  giving  rise  to  animal  heat.  The  true  theo- 
ries on  this  subject,  however,  may  be  said  to  date  as 
far  back  as  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  to 
have  commenced  with  the  brilliant  discoveries  of  Lavoi- 
sier. Speaking  of  his  researches,  M.  Gavarret  says 1 : — 

1  Loc.  cit.  p.  99. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  25 

c  The  alimentary  substances  introduced  into  the  stomach, 
after  being  digested  and  liquified,  are  absorbed  and  sent 
into  the  vessels,  where  they  mix  with  the  blood ,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  air  introduced  at  each  inspiration  into 
the  pulmonary  cavity  yields  to  the  blood  a  part  of  its 
oxygen.  Struck  with  this  double  centripetal  move- 
ment., Lavoisier  asked  himself  what  happened  to  these 
substances  brought  into  relation  with  one  another 
within  the  blood-vessels.  Proceeding  in  this  research 
with  all  the  rigour  of  a  chemical  analysis,  he  showed 
that  the  oxygen  introduced  by  the  respiratory  passages 
attacks  the  organic  substances  furnished  by  digestion, 
burns  them,  combining  with  their  carbon  and  their 
hydrogen  to  form  carbonic  acid  and  water.  He  showed 
that  this  slow  combustion  of  the  organic  materials  of 
the  blood  is  an  incessant  source  of  heat  V  Lavoisier 
then  instituted  experiments  to  determine  the  quantity 
of  heat  abstracted  from  the  animal  by  radiation,  by 
contact  with  air,  and  by  evaporation  of  fluids  from  the 
surface  of  the  body.  On  the  other  hand,  he  measured 
the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed,  calculated  the  propor- 
tions of  carbonic  acid  and  of  water  produced  by  the 
combination  of  this  oxygen  with  the  materials  of  the 
blood,  and  then  estimated  the  quantity  of  heat  dis- 
engaged during  these  reactions.  From  a  comparison 
of  the  results  thus  obtained  in  these  two  series  of  ob- 
servations, he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  chemical 
reactions  carried  on  within  the  body  would  furnish 
1  '  M£m.  de  1'Acad.  des  Sciences,'  1789. 


26  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

enough  heat  to  maintain  the  animal  at  its  proper  tem- 
perature. This  conclusion  was  afterwards  confirmed  by 
many  other  experiments  and  observations.  The  re- 
searches of  Lavoisier  still  left  us  in  doubt,  however,  as 
to  whether  the  combustion  of  the  materials  of  the  blood 
took  place  in  the  capillaries  of  the  body  generally,  or 
in  those  of  the  pulmonary  circulation.  This  doubt  was 
removed  by  Spallanzani;  and  the  subsequent  experi- 
ments of  Magnus  and  of  Claude-Bernard  only  tended  to 
confirm  his  conclusion,  that  the  heat-producing  chemi- 
cal changes  were  carried  on  in  the  capillaries  of  the 
body  generally.  Thus  the  heat  evolved  in  animals  is 
some  of  that  solar  heat  which  had  previously  impinged 
upon  plants,  and  which  was  gradually  locked  up  in  the 
form  of  potential  force,  during  the  growth  of  the  plant- 
tissue  subsequently  taken  as  food  by  animals. 

2.  Turning  now  to  the  next  dynamic  manifestation  of 
animals — to  their  power  of  movement — we  may,  for  the 
sake  of  brevity,  consider  this  as  it  presents  itself  in  the 
higher  animals  only — in  those  in  which  the  movements 
depend  upon  the  contractility  of  definite  structures 
known  as  c  muscles.'  Contractility  is  the  essential  attri- 
bute of  the  muscle,  and,  being  one  of  the  peculiarly 
vital  endowments,  we  may  now  enquire  how  far  this 
vital  property  is  one  which  is  correlatable  with  ordinary 
physical  forces,  or  whether  it  can  display  itself  inde- 
pendently of  these l.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  important 

1  For  a  full  and  admirable  treatment  of  this  question  we  must  Tefer 
the  reader  to  pp.  120-194  of  the  work  of  Gavarret,  already  quoted. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  27 

to  state  that  this  contractility  of  the  muscle  can  be  ex- 
cited, for  a  time,  after  the  death  of  the  animal  of  which 
it  formed  part :  the  length  of  time  during  which  the 
property  persists  being,  generally,  longer  in  proportion 
as  the  animal  is  lower  in  the  scale  of  organization. 
During  winter  the  muscles  of  certain  fish  and  reptiles 
have  been  known  to  contract  for  a  week  after  death, 
though  in  mammals  and  birds  this  property  of  the  vo- 
luntary muscles  disappears  after  a  few  hours.  From  the 
researches  of  Nysten  upon  the  bodies  of  decapitated 
criminals,  it  appears  that  in  man,  as  in  the  lower  ani- 
mals, a  certain  order  is  observed  amongst  the  different 
muscles  of  the  body  in  the  loss  of  this  vital  property. 
Contractions,  from  electrical  stimuli,  ceased  in  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart  after  forty-five  minutes;  in  the 
muscles  of  the  extremities  after  seven  hours ;  and,  last 
of  all,  in  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart,  which,  on  this 
account,  had  been  previously  spoken  of  by  Galen  as 
cultimum  moriens/  In  one  instance,  Nysten  found 
that  this  portion  of  the  human  heart  could  be  made  to 
contract  i6j  hours  after  the  death  of  the  individual. 
Contractility  of  the  muscle  cannot,  therefore,  be  due 
to  any  peculiar  c vital  principle'  which  leaves  the  body 
when  the  organism  dies. 

Although  the  muscle  is  usually  excited  to  contract  by 
a  stimulus  sent  through  a  nerve,  we  have  now  learned — 
principally  through  the  phenomena  observable  in  ani- 
mals poisoned  by  woorara — that  the  contractility  of  the 
muscle  may  be  called  into  play  through  the  direct 


28  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

action  of  a  stimulus,  and  without  any  intervention  of  the 
nervous  system.  The  contractility  is,  however,  closely 
related,  and  more  or  less  proportionate  in  degree,  to 
the  supply  of  arterial  blood  circulating  in  the  capillary 
vessels  with  which  it  is  furnished.  The  experiments 
of  Longet l  on  this  subject  are  most  instructive.  He 
found,  as  a  result  of  experimentation  upon  many  ani- 
mals, that  all  traces  of  contractility  after  the  direct 
application  of  a  stimulus  disappeared  from  muscles 
which  had  received  no  arterial  blood  for  a  space  of  two 
hours ;  but  that  almost  as  soon  as  the  afflux  of  arterial 
blood  to  the  muscle  was  again  permitted — even  in  the 
space  of  a  few  minutes — the  contractility  of  the  muscles 
again  manifested  itself  upon  the  application  of  a  stimu- 
lus, either  direct  or  indirect.  But  those  heat-liberating 
chemical  reactions — the  processes  of  combustion  neces- 
sary for  the  continuance  of  the  nutritive  changes — are 
carried  on  in  the  capillaries  of  the  muscle  as  well  as  in 
the  capillaries  of  other  parts  of  the  body ;  and  it  would 
seem  that  the  disappearance  of  the  property  of  contrac- 
tility from  the  muscle  is  dependent  upon  that  stoppage 
of  the  heat-evolution  therein  which  the  arrest  of  the 
circulation  entails.  In  support  of  this  view,  on  the  one 
hand,  it  has  been  shown  by  M.  Becquerel2  that  the 
temperature  of  a  muscle  becomes  sensibly  lowered  when 
the  artery  supplying  it  is  compressed ;  and,  on  the  other^ 


de  Physiologic,'  sme  ed.  1869,  t.  ii.  p.  613. 
2  '  Ann.  de  Chimie  de  Physique,'  1835,  t.  lix.  p.  135,. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  29 

we  learn,  from  the  experiments  of  Matteucci  ly  that  the 
activity  of  the  processes  of  combustion  within  the 
muscle  increase  during  its  contraction  -. 

Many  separate  sets  of  investigations  do  indeed  tend 
to  show  that  an  excess  of  heat  is  developed  during  mus- 
cular activity,  though,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  evi- 
dence to  prove,  from  the  highly  interesting  experiments 
of  M.  Beclard  3,  whose  results  have  been  confirmed  and 
extended  by  M.  Heidenhain,  the  increase  in  the  acti- 
vity of  the  chemical  changes  which  undoubtedly  exists 
during  muscular  exercise,  is  much  greater  than  can  be 
accounted  for  by  the  actual  increase  of  sensible  heat  in 
the  body.  After  alluding  to  these  various  investigations, 
M.  Gavarret  generalizes  their  results  as  follows4: — 


1  '  Letture  sul  1'  elettro-physiologia,'  Milano,  1867,  p.  36. 

2  During  a  state  of  rest,  or  moderate  exercise,  combustion  and  eli- 
mination of  its  products  are  duly  regulated  in  the  muscle.     So  long  as 
this  balance  is  maintained  the  muscle  preserves  its  physiological  pro- 
perties, and  the  chemical  reaction  of  its  juice  remains  neutral  or  alkaline. 
But  when  excessive  activity  of  the  muscle  is  maintained,  then  the  pro- 
cesses of  elimination  can  no  longer  keep  pace  with  those  of  combustion  : 
lactic  acid  accumulates  within  the  muscle,  and  the  reaction  of  its  juice 
becomes  decidedly  acid.     The  contractility  is  gradually  enfeebled  by 
the  increasing  accumulation  of  these  effete  products  within  the  muscle, 
and  the  feeling  of  fatigue  is  induced.    There  is  good  reason  for  believing 
that  this  feeling  of  fatigue  is  rather  dependent  upon  the  accumulation  of 
these  products  of  combustion  within  the  muscle  than  upon  an  actual 
molecular  wasting  of  the  muscle-substance.     There  is,  however,  a  more 
general  feeling  of  fatigue  which  is  dependent  rather  upon  state  of  nerv- 
ous system  than  state  of  muscle. 

3  '  De  la  Contraction  musculaire  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  temperature 
animale,'  Paris,  1861. 

4  Loc.  cit.  p.  135. 


30  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

c  All  these  experiments  agree  in  showing  that  in  the 
muscular  system  of  an  animal  which  accomplishes  ac- 
tual work  (such  as  raising  a  weight,  dragging  a  load,  &c.) 
everything  goes  on  as  in  an  ordinary  steam-engine. 
Whilst  the  muscle  performs  work,  the  heat  produced  by 
the  internal  combustions  becomes  divided  into  two 
complementary  portions;  the  one  part  appears  as  sen- 
sible heat,  and  determines  the  temperature  of  the  muscle, 
the  other  disappears^  so  far  as  its  existence  in  the  form 
of  heat  is  concerned,  and,  by  the  intervention  of  the 
muscular  contraction,  becomes  transformed  into  mechani- 
cal work.  The  muscle  is  an  animated  machine^  which, 
like  the  steam-engine,  utilizes  the  heat  in  order  to 
produce  work :  in  both  cases  there  is  necessarily  an 
equivalence  between  the  heat  which  disappears,  or  is 
consumed,  and  the  external  work  achieved.'  In  con- 
sideration of  its  origin,  the  energy  manifested  during 
the  contraction  of  the  muscle  is  directly  comparable 
with  the  energy  due  to  the  elasticity  of  vapour  when 
this  is  the  motor  power  at  work,  as  in  a  steam-engine. 
Chemical  change — combustion,  in  fact — in  each  case,  in 
muscle  and  steam-engine  alike,  causes  the  liberation  of 
heat;  and  in  each  case  part  of  this  liberated  force  is 
capable  of  manifesting  itself  anew  in  the  form  of  me- 
chanical energy.  It  matters  not  whence  the  heat  is 
derived — whether  it  comes  from  the  decomposition  of 
the  recently  assimilated  food-products  in  the  blood 
which  circulates  through  the  muscle,  or  whether  it 
proceeds  from  the  liberated  energy  or  sun-force  that 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  31 

may  have  been  locked  up  for  ages  in  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  but  which  is  now  set  free  by  a  process  of  com- 
bustion in  the  engine  fire — the  result  is  the  same,  and 
in  the  muscle,  as  much  as  in  the  steam-engine,  we  have 
to  do  with  a  machine  in  which  the  transference  of  heat 
into  mechanical  energy  is  capable  of  being  effected. 
The  muscle,  it  is  true,  is  a  much  more  subtle  kind  of 
machine,  and  the  precise  mode  of  its  action  is  as  yet 
hidden  from  us ;  we  know  not  ho<w  it  is — through  what 
precise  molecular  changes  taking  place  in  the  substance 
of  the  muscle — that  the  heat  which  disappears  as  heat, 
is,  through  the  property  of  contractility,  enabled  to  re- 
appear in  the  form  of  mechanical  energy  whilst 
the  animal  performs  its  manifold  muscular  move- 
ments. That  this  is  so,  however,  we  know;  and  we 
know,  moreover,  that  as  a  mere  machine  for  the  con- 
version of  heat  into  mechanical  energy,  the  muscle  far 
excels  the  best  steam-engine  which  has  ever  been 
constructed.  The  merits  of  such  a  machine  must  of 
course  be  judged,  other  things  equal,  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  proportion  of  the  total  heat  liberated 
therein  which  is  capable  of  being  converted  into  me- 
chanical energy  available 1  for  the  execution  of  actual 
work.  Now,  the  investigations  of  Helmholtz  and 

1  Available  muscular  energy  must  be  distinguished  from  total  muscular 
energy,  some  of  which — whilst  a  man  is  performing  work — is  ex- 
pended in  balancing  the  body  or  in  other  ways  not  directly  effective. 
It  is  the  amount  of  loss  of  effective  or  available  energy  in  this  and  in 
other  ways  (such  as  from  friction,  radiation,  &c.)  which  regulates  the 
value  of  muscular  and  all  other  machines. 


32  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Hirn  have  gone  to  show  that  a  man  is  capable  of  util- 
izing, for  the  production  of  available  muscular  energy, 
one-fifth  of  the  total  amount  of  heat  developed  in  his 
body ;  whilst  the  admirable  labours  of  the  latter  inves- 
tigator have  also  shown  that  even  the  most  perfect 
steam-engine  that  has  yet  been  constructed  is  only 
capable  of  utilizing  about  one-eighth  l  of  the  total  amount 
of  heat  liberated  therein  2.  We  now  know  also,  in  op- 


1  This  estimate  is  much  more  in  favour  of  the  steam-engine  than  that 
of  other  investigators.     According  to  Rankine,  only  from  ^  to  ^  of 
the  heat  of  the  fuel  is  capable   of  manifesting   itself  as   mechanical 
energy;  Sir  William  Armstrong,  again,  considers  -^  as  the  maximum, 
though  he  thinks  the  average  conversion  to  be  about  •£-§  of  the  total 
potential  force  of  the  fuel. 

2  In  continuation  of  this  subject  M.  Gavarret  says  (loc.  cit.  p.  146) : — 
'  Mais  pour  se  faire  une  juste  idde  du  haut  degre'  de  perfection  qui  peut 
atteindre  le  moteur  animd,  il  faut  fixer  son  attention,  sur  la  rapidite"  des 
mouvements  execute's  d'une  maniere  continue  par  certains  oiseaux  et  les 
insectes  alt's,  pendant  les  heures  et  meme  des  journees  entires. — En 
quatre  ou  cinq  minutes  1'aigle  s'dleve  a  6  ou  7000  metres  et  disparait, 
dans  les  airs :  d'aprks  Pictio  de  Lavalle,  le  pigeon  messager  de  Perse 
fait  en  un  jour  plus  de  chemin  qu'un  homme   de  pied  en  six. — Les 
hirondelles  volent  pendant  des  journe'es  entieres  de'crivant  mille  et  mille 
sinuosite's  dans  les  airs  pour  atteindre  les  petites  insectes  dont  elles  font 
leur  nourriture ;  leur  vol  est  si  rapide  et  si  soutenu  que  sept  a  huit  jours 
leur  suffisent  pour  se  transporter  de  nos  climats  sous  la  ligne  ;  Adanson 
en  a   vu  arriver   au   Sdndgal  trois  ou  quatre  jours  apres  leur   depart 
d'Europe. — Le  faucon  de  Henri   II  s'etant  emporte"  apres  une  canar- 
dicre  a.  Fontainebleau,  fut  pris  le  lendemain  a  Malte  et  reconnu  a  1'an- 
neau  qu'il  portait;  un  faucon  des  Canaries,  envoye"  au  due  de  Lerme 
revint  d'Andalousie  k  1'lle  de  Te'ne'riffe  en  seize  heures,  ce  qui  fait  un 
trajet   de  250  lieues  execute"  avec  un  vitesse  moyenne  de  16  lieues  k 
1'heure. — Hans  Sloane  assure  qu'a  la  Barbade   les  mouettes  vont    se 
promener  en  troupes  <\  plus  de  60  lieues  de  distance  en  mer,  et  que  le 
meme  jour   elles   regagnent  leur  point  de  depart. — Certains  insectes, 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  33 

position  to  the  doctrines  of  Liebig,  that  the  heat  which 
is  transformed  into  mechanical  energy  is  by  no  means 
necessarily  derived  from  the  combustion  of  nitroge- 
nous substances ,  and,  least  of  all,  from  an  oxidation 
of  the  substance  of  the  muscle  itself.  This  doctrine  of 
Liebig,  which  was  for  a  long  time  accepted  by  many 
physiologists,  was  from  the  commencement  rejected  by 
a  few,  and  notably  so  by  Mayer,  in  his  celebrated 
memoir  before  alluded  to 1.  In  this  memoir  he  insisted 
that — c  A  muscle  is  only  an  apparatus  by  means  of 
which  the  transformation  of  force  is  brought  about, 
but  it  is  not  the  substance  by  the  chemical  change  of 
which  the  mechanical  effect  is  produced/  The  recent 
admirable  researches  of  MM.  Fick  and  Wislicenus2 
are  entirely  in  favour  of  this  notion.  They  found,  in 
making  a  mountain  ascent,  that  the  total  combustion 
of  nitrogenous  materials  would  only  suffice  to  produce 
about  one-half  of  the  tota]  effective  energy  which  must 
have  been  expended  during  the  excursion.  This  and 
other  considerations  render  it  almost  certain  that  the 
heat  which  is  converted  into  mechanical  energy  during 

comme  les  taons  peuvent  suivre  pendant  de  longues  heures  un  cheval 
lancd  au  grand  trot.  Par  une  belle  jour-ne'e  de  mai  ou  de  juin  1'abeille 
vole  d'une  manifere  continue  du  matin  au  soir,  pour  aller  cueillir  dans  les 
corolles  des  fleurs  et  rapporter  k  la  ruche  les  materiaux  necessaires  aux 
travaux  et  k  la  nourriture  de  la  communautd.' 

1  '  Organic  Movement  in  its  Relation  to  Material  Changes,'  Heilbronn, 
1845. 

2  '  Philosophical  Magazine,'  vol.  xxxi.  p.  485.      For  most  important 
additional  facts  and  explanations,  see  a  paper  by  Prof.  Parkes  in  '  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Royal  Society,'  1867,  pp.  53-59. 

D 


34  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

muscular  action  is  derived  from  no  peculiar  source.  We 
know  that  heat  is  set  free  by  nutritive  chemical  changes 
taking  place  in  the  blood  which  circulates  through  the 
capillaries  of  the  muscular  system,  and  that  the  sub- 
stances which  undergo  these  changes  are  dissolved  non- 
nitrogenous,  as  well  as  nitrogenous  products  of  assimi- 
lation. We  know,  in  fact,  that  the  muscle  acts  only  as 
a  machine  for  the  purpose  of  converting  a  portion  of 
the  heat  thence  derived  into  mechanical  energy \  and 
that  the  substance  of  the  muscle  itself — not  yielding  the 
force  which  is  to  be  transformed — undergoes  merely  a 
molecular  wasting  by  virtue  of  its  own  functional  acti- 
vity as  a  transformative  apparatus,  just  as  the  parts  of 
a  steam-engine  are  subject  to  a  gradual  wear  and  tear 
produced  by  the  friction  occasioned  during  its  activity2. 

1  The  machine  being  called  into  action,  merely,  by  the  nerve,  and  the 
stimulus  coming  through  this  being  partly,  though  not  wholly,  to  the 
contraction  of  the  muscle   as   the   spark   is   to  exploding  gunpowder. 
The  experiments  of  Matteucci  ('Letture  sul  1'  elettro-physiologia/  Milan, 
1867,  p.  35")  go  to  show  that  the  mechanical  work  effected  by  a  muscle 
during  its  contraction  may  be  30,000  times  greater  than  the  work  ex- 
pended in  the  excitation  of  the  nerve.     On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
abundant  evidence  to  show  that  the  strength  and  vigour  of  the  muscular 
contraction  varies  with  the  amount  or  intensity  of  the  nerve-change 
which  calls  it  into  play.     The  same  muscle  which,  in  certain  states  of 
the  nervous  system,  may  be  almost  powerless,  may  in  others  be  made  to 
contract  with  far  more  than  ordinary  energy. 

2  The  molecular  restitution  of  muscle,  of  brain,  and  of  the  nitrogenous 
tissues  generally,  which  are  in  continual  need  of  repair,  make  it  essential 
that  nitrogenous  substances  should  to  a  certain  extent  be  consumed  as 
food.     But  so  far  as  muscular  action  is  concerned  the  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances are  needed  for  the  repair  of  the  machine,  and  not,  as  formerly 
supposed,  as  a  source  of  the  energy  which  is  to  be  transformed  through 
the  intervention  of  the  machine. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  35 

3.  Turning  now  to  the  third  mode  of  vital  activity — 
to  that  which  manifests  itself  in  the  display  of  nervous 
phenomena  —  we  shall  find  that  these  manifestations 
are  also  closely  dependent  upon  the  integrity  of  certain 
material  structures,  and  that  their  appearance  coincides 
with  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  heat  appreciable 
in,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  these  structures. 

The  Nervous  System  is  made  up  of  nerve-cells  and 
nerve-fibres  in  various  states  of  aggregation.  The 
nerve-cells  are  elements  in  which  great  molecular 
changes  are  supposed  to  take  place,  attended  by  the 
liberation  of  molecular  motion,  whilst  the  nerve-fibres 
are,  for  the  most  part,  mere  channels  of  communica- 
tion along  which  this  molecular  motion  is  conducted. 
The  matter  of  which  the  nervous  system  is  com- 
posed was  originally  almost  uniform  in  structure  and 
property;  but,  little  by  little,  developmental  differen- 
tiations take  place  in  the  embryo,  with  which  are 
associated  correlated  differences  in  function.  As  Mr. 
Herbert  Spencer  says,  all  direct  and  indirect  evidence 
c  justify  us  in  concluding  that  the  nervous  system  con- 
sists of  one  kind  of  matter  under  different  forms  and 
conditions.  In  the  grey  tissue  this  matter  exists  in 
masses  containing  corpuscles^  which  are  soft  and  have 
granules  dispersed  through  them,  and  which,  besides 
being  thus  unstably  composed,  are  placed  so  as  to  be 
liable  to  disturbance  in  the  greatest  degree.  In  the 
white  tissue  this  matter  is  collected  together  in  ex- 
tremely slender  threads  that  are  denser,  that  are  uniform 

D  2 


36  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

in  texture,  and  that  are  shielded  in  an  unusual  manner 
from  disturbing  forces,  except  at  their  two  extre- 
mities V  On  the  one  hand,  these  fibres  connect  peri- 
pheral parts  with  the  nerve-centres,  whereby  such  parts 
are  rendered  sensitive  $  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
nerve-centres  are  also  in  connection  with  other  sets  of 
nerve-fibres  which  are  accustomed  to  transmit  stimuli 
outwardly  towards  the  muscles  in  which  they  are  dis- 
tributed, so  as  to  call  them  into  activity.  The  expe- 
riments of  Phillipeaux  and  Vulpian  have  abundantly 
confirmed  the  reasonings  of  Mr.  G.  H.  Lewes  2,  which 
went  to  show  that  there  was  no  real  difference  in  pro- 
perty between  the  so-called  sensory  and  motor  nerves. 
The  fundamental  property  of  each  alike  is  the  capa- 
bility of  transmitting  a  stimulus,  and  for  this  property 
Mr.  Lewes  proposed  the  name  neurility.  Neurility, 
therefore,  is  the  characteristic  property  of  a  nerve,  just 
as  contractility  is  the  characteristic  property  of  a  muscle ; 
and  the  different  results  produced,  when  a  sensory  and 
a  motor  nerve  respectively  are  stimulated,  is  due  to  the 
different  nature  of  the  organs  to  which  the  stimulus  is 
directed.  When  the  stimulus  traverses  the  nerve  in 
an  afferent  direction,  this,  impinging  upon  a  nerve- 
centre,  liberates  a  larger  or  smaller  quantity  of  energy, 
and  may  produce  what  is  called  a  sensation ;  but  when, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  stimulus  originating  in  a  nerve- 
centre  is  propagated  in  an  efferent  direction,  then  this 

1  'Principles  of  Psychology,'  1869,  No.  20,  p.  24. 

2  '  Physiology  of  Common  Life,'  1859. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  37 

stimulus  calls  into  play  the  contractility  of  a  muscle, 
and  so  gives  rise  to  a  motor  act. 

As  we  have  already  seen  in  respect  to  the  muscle, 
that  its  contractility  lasts  for  a  varying  period  after  the 
death  of  the  animal,  so  is  it  in  the  case  of  the  nerve. 
This,  after  the  death  of  the  animal,  is  still  capable  of 
transmitting  a  stimulus — a  fact  which  is  shown  by  its 
power  (when  stimulated)  of  calling  into  action  the  muscle 
to  which  it  is  distributed.  The  precise  length  of  time 
during  which  the  property  survives  increases  also  in  pro- 
portion as  the  animal  is  low  in  the  scale  of  organization. 
Again,  there  are  many  experiments  of  the  most  striking 
kind  on  record  which  show  the  complete  dependence  of 
the  nervous  system  upon  a  due  supply  of  arterial  blood. 
Without  this  all  nerve-functions  soon  cease  in  parts 
thus  cut  off  from  their  stores  of  potential  energy.  The 
experiments  of  many  observers  have  shown  that,  when 
the  posterior  part  of  the  body  of  a  mammalian  animal 
has  been  cut  off  from  its  blood  supply  by  ligature  of 
the  abdominal  aorta,  the  complete  insensibility  and 
disappearance  of  all  reflex^  excitability  which  soon 
supervenes,  may  be  made  to  cease  in  the  course  of  a 
few  minutes  by  the  removal  of  the  ligature  from  the 
main  artery.  The  renewal  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  through  the  grey  matter  of  the  spinal  cord  re- 
stores to  this  and  to  the  paralysed  parts  generally  their 

1  That  is  to  say,  the  ability  to  give  rise  to  movements,  in  response  to 
external  stimuli,  through  the  intervention  of  lower  nerve-centres,  in- 
dependently of  the  action  of  Will  or  volition. 


38  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

temporarily-abolished  functions.  Non-sensitive  parts 
again  become  sensitive,  and  the  paralysis  of  motor  power 
disappears.  Even  when  the  posterior  part  of  the  body 
of  such  an  animal  has  been  completely  severed  from  the 
anterior,  and  when  all  signs  of  reflex  excitability  have 
disappeared,  M.  Brown-Sequard  has,  nevertheless,  found 
that  the  injection  for  a  time  of  oxygenated  and  defibri- 
nated  blood  seems  to  restore  to  the  spinal  cord  all  its 
properties — so  that  irritation  of  the  skin  again  gives 
rise  to  reflex  movements.  The  functions  of  the  brain 
are  similarly  dependent  upon,  and  modifiable  by,  the 
nature  of  the  blood  supply.  Sir  Astley  Cooper  having 
tied  the  two  carotid  arteries  of  a  rabbit,  completely 
cut  off  the  afflux  of  blood  to  the  brain  by  compressing 
the  two  vertebral  arteries ;  when  the  animal  very 
shortly  lapsed  into  a  state  of  complete  stupor  or  coma, 
which  continued  until  the  compression  was  removed 
from  the  two  latter  vessels.  As  soon  as  this  was  done, 
however,  the  animal  again  exhibited  signs  of  life.  The 
experiments  of  M.  Vulpian  upon  frogs  have  yielded  even 
still  more  striking  results.  He  stopped  the  circulation 
of  blood  throughout  the  body  generally,  by  tying  the 
heart  at  the  origin  of  the  great  vessels.  This  occasioned 
a  gradual  cessation  of  all  vital  manifestations.  In 
such  animals,  however,  these  manifestations  are  slow 
to  disappear,  so  that  it  was-  not  till  after  the  expi- 
ration of  tiuo  or  three  hours  that  all  signs  of  life  had 
gone.  After  this  period  no  trace  of  any  excitability 
could  be  detected  in  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  animal 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  39 

was  practically  dead l  but  for  the  fact  that  the  heart  still 
exhibited  feeble  contractions 2,  although  the  presence  of 
the  ligature  still  prevented  the  egress  of  blood  from  its 
cavities.  In  this  condition  the  frog  might  be  allowed 
to  remain  for  even  three  or  four  hours  ,•  and  yet,  when 
the  ligature  was  removed,  the  heart  still  continuing  to 
beat,  the  circulation  soon  became  completely  re-estab- 
lished. The  other  vital  functions  reappeared  much  more 
slowly.  After  about  half-an-hour  the  first  signs  of 
respiratory  movements  showed  themselves — at  first  at 
irregular  and  distant  intervals,  and  then,  gradually,  with 
their  accustomed  rhythm.  But  it  was  not  till  after  about 
two  hours  more  that  the  spinal  cord,  as  a  whole,  re- 
gained its  excitability,  and  that  reflex  movements  were 
producible  by  irritation  of  the  skin.  Later  still,  the 
power  of  voluntary  movement  was  resumed,  and  the  pre- 
viously dead  animal  was  seen  to  have  recovered  all  its 
vital  powers  3. 

1  The  animal,  as  a  whole,  was  certainly  dead,  although  it  retained 
within  itself  the  potentiality  of  living.     Life  might  be  renewed,  if  its 
tissues  and  organs  were  again  exposed  to  fitting  conditions,  but  not 
otherwise. 

2  We  have  seen,  already,  how  long  even  in  the  human  subject  signs 
of  vitality  remain  in  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart.    All  this  is  much  more 
manifest  in  the  Amphibia,  and,  from  what  has  been  stated  above,  we 
can  only  conclude  that  the  cardiac  ganglia,  in  these  creatures  as  well  as  in 
others,  are  capable  of  retaining  their  vital  properties  longer  than  the 
spinal  centres. 

3  M.  Gavarret  calls  attention  to  the  Memoir  of  Legallois  published 
in  1812,  '  Sur  le  Principe  de  la  Vie,'  in  which  he  showed  a  rare  insight 
and  prescience.     Legallois  said  (CEuvres,  t.  i.  p.  131) : — '  Si  Ton  pouvait 
supplier  au  cceur  par  une  sorte  d'injection  et  si  en  meme  temps  on  avait, 


40  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

It  has  been  ascertained  very  definitely  by  the  expe- 
riments of  Helmholtz  and  of  M.  SchifF,  that  the  trans- 
mission of  a  stimulus  through  a  nerve  is  marked  by  a 
rise  of  temperature  therein ;  whilst  the  extremely  inte- 
resting experiments  of  Dr.  Lombard  seem  to  show  that 
a  similar  rise  of  temperature  takes  place  in  the  brain 
itself l,  when  it  is  in  a  state  of  activity.  Liebreich 

pour  fournir  k  1'injection  d'une  maniere  continue,  une  provision  de 
sang  arterial,  on  parviendrait  sans  peine  k  entretenir  la  vie  inde'finement 
dans  quelque  troncon  que  ce  soit ;  et  par  consequent,  apres  la  de'capi- 
tation,  on  1'entretiendrait  dans  la  tete  elle-m6me  avec  toutes  les  fonctions 
qui  sont  propres  au  cerveau.  Non  seulement  on  pourrait  entretenir  la 
vie  de  cette  maniere,  soit  dans  la  tete,  soit  dans  toute  autre  partie  isolee 
du  corps  d'un  animal,  mais  on  pourrait  1'y  rappele'r  apres  son  entiere 
extinction.'  These  predictions  of  Legallois  have  received  a  most  re- 
markable verification  by  the  experiments  of  Brown-Se'quard,  which  are 
thus  referred  to  by  M.  Gavarret : — '  Sur  un  chien,  M.  Brown-Se'quard 
separe  la  tete  du  tronc ;  il  attend  buit  ou  dix  minutes  jusqu'k  ce  que, 
depuis  quelques  instants,  le  bulbe  rachidien  et  le  reste  de  1'encephale 
aient  bien  eVidemment  perdu  toute  trace  appreciable  d'excitabilite' ;  puis 
il,  pratique  des  injections  re'ite'rees  de  sang  defibrine'  et  oxyge'ne'  k  la  fois 
dans  les  arteres  carotides  et  dans  les  verte'brales.  Quelques  mouvements 
de'sordonne's  apparaissent  au  bout  de  deux  ou  trois  minutes,  puis  les 
muscles  des  yeux  et  de  la  face  executent  des  mouvements  coordonnes 
ve*ritables  manifestations  de  la  vie,  qui  tendent  k  faire  admettre  que  les 
fonctions  ce're'brales  se  sont  re'tablies  dans  cette  tete  completement  sepa- 
re'e  du  tronc.'  (Loc.  cit.  p.  237.) 

1  See  '  Journal  de  Physiologic,'  t.  i.  670.  Intellectual  and  emotional 
activity  alike  produced  a  rise  of  temperature,  which  was  always  most 
appreciable  over  the  posterior  part  rather  than  the  frontal  region  of  the 
head.  We  must  suppose  that  the  heat  detectable  in  these  cases  is  some 
surplus  portion  of  that  set  free  in  the  blood  of  the  part — a  portion 
which  has  escaped  modification  into  nerve-force.  The  muscle,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  only  capable  of  utilizing  a  portion  of  the  heat  actually 
liberated.  But  if  the  analogy  between  the  mode  of  action  of  the  muscle 
and  the  nerve-centre  does  not  hold — and  there  is  still  much  room  for 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


and  M.  Byasson  think  that  such  evolution  of  heat  is 
produced  by  an  increased  amount  of  chemical  change 
in  the  active  parts;  though  the  investigations  of  Dr. 
L.  H.  Wood J  go  to  show  that  (as  was  the  case  in  the 
activity  of  muscle)  the  liberated  energy  is  not  derived 
from  the  oxidation  of  the  nerve-substance  itself,  but 
rather  from  an  oxidation  of  the  pabulum  supplied  by 
the  blood  to  the  functionally  active  parts.  It  is  quite 
reasonable  to  suppose,  however,  that  nerve-organs,  by 
virtue  of  their  activity,  should  undergo  a  certain  amount 
of  waste2;  and,  probably,  it  is  this  of  which  we  get 
evidence  in  the  observations  of  Liebreich  as  to  the 
diminution  of  protagon  in  parts  of  the  nervous  system 
which  had  long  been  in  a  state  of  uninterrupted  activity. 

doubt  on  this  subject— then  the  local  increase  of  heat  may  be  due  to 
mere  increased  afflux  of  blood,  either  alone  or  supplemented  by  heat 
which  is  liberated  during  the  molecular  changes  taking  place  in  the 
nerve-tissue  itself. 

1  '  On  the  Influence  of  Mental  Activity  on  the  Excretion  of  Phos- 
phoric Acid  by  the  Kidneys.'     ('  Proceedings  of  Connecticut  Medical 
Society,'  1869,  p.  197.) 

2  The  researches  of  Professor  Haughton  ('  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Medical  Science,'  1 860)  and  also  of  M.  Byasson  ('  Thfese  de  Paris,' 
1868,  No.  162)  have  shown  that  the  same  individual  during  periods  in 
which  he  has  undergone  much  intellectual  labour  and  a  minimum  of 
muscular  exercise,  passes  as  much  or  even  more  urea  than  during  other 
similar  periods  when  there  has  been  much  muscular  exertion  and  a 
minimum  of  intellectual  labour.     The  analyses  of  M.  Byasson  go  to 
show  that  the  same  individual,  under  the  influence  of  the  same  diet, 
passed  in  24  hours  the  following  quantities  of  urea  : — 

During  a  period  of  rest .     20-46   grms. 

During  a  period  of  muscular  labour    ....     22-90       „ 
During  a  period  of  cerebral  activity    .....     23-88      „ 


42  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

The  molecular  motion  or  energy,  set  free  in  the  ner- 
vous system,  subserves  very  different  purposes.  Upon 
evidence  which  cannot  now  be  gone  into,  it  could  be 
shown  (a)  that  the  nervous  system  plays  an  important 
part  in  regulating  the  various  secretions  and  in  in- 
fluencing the  nutrition  of  the  body  generally.  It  is 
nerve-force  again  (&)  which  initiates  or  calls  into  play 
the  activity  of  the  various  muscles  by  which  the  count- 
less movements  within  the  bodies  of  animals  are  pro- 
duced, and  also  those  by  which  locomotion  and  external 
visible  movements  generally  are  effected.  But  nerve- 
changes  also  (c)  give  rise  to  other  manifestations — mani- 
festations altogether  peculiar  in  kind  and  peculiar  to  the 
individual  in  whom  they  occur.  Feeling  is  the  basis  of 
Consciousness,  and  this  is  a  property  sui  generis,  which  is 
believed  to  be  called  into  existence  by  the  action  or 
occurrence  of  molecular  changes  within  certain  parts  of 
the  brain *. 

Whilst  the  manifestation  of  mental  phenomena,  in 

1  '  Feeling  of  whatever  kind  is  directly  known  by  each  person  in  no 
other  place  than  his  own  consciousness.  That  feelings  exist  in  the  world 
beyond  consciousness  is  a  belief  reached  only  through  an  involved  com- 
bination of  inferences.  That,  alike  in  human  and  inferior  beings,  feel- 
ings are  accompaniments  of  changes  in  the  peculiar  structure  known  as 
the  nervous  system,  is  also  an  indirectly  established  belief.  And  that 
the  feelings  alone  cognizable  by  any  individual  are  products  of  the 
action  of  his  own  nervous  system,  which  he  has  never  seen,  and  on 
which  he  can  try  no  experiments,  is  a  belief  only  to  be  arrived  at  through 
a  further  chain  of  reasoning.  Nevertheless,  the  evidence,  though  so 
indirect,  is  so  extensive,  so  varied,  and  so  congruous,  that  we  may  ac- 
cept the  conclusion  without  hesitation.'— Herbert  Spencer,  'Principles 
of  Psychology,'  1869,  p.  128. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  43 

the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term,  therefore,  corresponds 
only  to  a  fractional  part  of  nerve-activities  in  gene- 
ral, there  is,  again,  the  very  best  reason  for  believ- 
ing that  Consciousness,  so  far  from  being  co-exten- 
sive with  Mind,  or  mental  phenomena,  is  in  reality 
limited  to  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  what 
may  be  rightly  ranged  under  this  category.  Many  truly 
mental  phenomena  never  reveal  themselves  in  con- 
sciousness at  all,  and  the  roots  of  these  strike  far  and 
wide;  so  that,  instead  of  accepting  the  popular  view, 
that  the  Brain  is  the  organ  of  Mind,  I  believe  it  would 
be  nearer  the  truth  to  look  upon  the  whole  Nervous 
System  as  the  organ  of  Mind — a  doctrine  which  has 
already  been  taught  by  Mr.  G.  H.  Lewes  and  others. 
The  Brain,  it  is  true,  is  its  principal  organ,  whilst  Con- 
sciousness or  Feeling 1  is  probably  only  attendant  upon 
the  activity  of  quite  a  limited  portion  of  this  2.  And, 

1  Not  using  these  words,  however,  in  the  sense  in  which  they  are 
employed  by  Mr.  Lewes,  as  has  been  explained  in  an  article  on  '  Sensa- 
tion and  Perception'  in  Nature,  vol.  i.  Nos.  8  and  12. 

2  On  this  subject  we  have  said   elsewhere   (article    on    *  Conscious- 
ness,' 'Journal  of  Mental  Science,'  January  1870,  p.  522): — 'Mind  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  constituted  by  our  conscious  states  or  nerve- 
actions  only  ;  but  as  these  conscious  states  are  themselves  only  the  last 
terms  of  a  series  of  molecular  actions  taking  place  in  ganglionic  and 
other  nerve-tissue,  we  now  simply  maintain  that  the  components  and 
not  the  resultant  alone  ought  to  be  considered  as  elements  entering  into 
the  composition  of  mind.     And,  similarly,  we  would  make  the  sum 
total  of  the  seats  of  these  molecular  changes — the  whole  Nervous  Sys- 
tem—rather than  the  seats  of  the  resulting  conscious  states  alone,  con- 
stitute the  organ  of  Mind  as  now  understood.'     And  again,  in  Nature 
(vol.  i.  No.  12,  p,3ii): — 'Cognition  or  intellectual  action  may  take 


44  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

as  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  has  so  clearly  pointed  out a, 
in  the  evolution  of  Mind  we  each  one  of  us  expe- 
rience the  constant  transitions  whereby  a  state  or  act 
(the  recurrence  of  which  was  at  first  always  attended 
by  consciousness)  at  last,  when  thoroughly  familiar, 
may  take  place  quite  unconsciously,  or  without  in 
the  least  arousing  our  attention.  The  more  fully 
such  phenomena,  therefore,  are  recognized  as  parts 
of  an  orderly  succession,  by  which  alone  greater  and 
greater  complexities  of  thought  and  feeling  are  rendered 
possible,  the  more  will  it  become  evident  that  the 
sphere  of  Mind  cannot  at  any  time  be  circumscribed  by 
the  then  present  or  possible  states  of  Consciousness — 
the  more  it  is  obvious  that  in  our  conception  of  Mind 
we  should  also  include  all  past  stages  of  Consciousness, 
the  representatives  of  which,  now  in  the  form  of  un- 
conscious nerve- actions,  are  from  moment  to  moment 
manifesting  themselves  potentially,  if  not  actually,  in 
all  our  present  Thoughts,  Feelings,  and  Volitions. 

But  though  on  the  question  whether  Consciousness 
or  Feeling  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  possible  accompani- 

place  under  the  form  of  a  mere  organic  or  unconscious  discrimination 
without  the  intervention  of  consciousness.  Thus,  in  the  individual,  con- 
sciousness or  feeling  comes  to  be  superadded  as  an  additional  accom- 
paniment to  certain  mere  organic  discriminations ;  so  that  consciousness, 
without  which  sensation  cannot  exist,  is  secondary,  whilst  cognition,  in 
the  form  of  unconscious  discrimination,  is  primary.  Out  of  this  primary 
undifferentiated  organic  discrimination,  such  as  alone  pertains  to  the  lowest 
forms  of  animal  life,  there  has  been  gradually  evolved  that  which  we 
know  as  Feeling  and  Consciousness.' 

1  '  Principles  of  Psychology,'  1855,  pp.  563  and  616. 


'2 HE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  45 

ment  only  of  certain  nerve-changes,  or  whether  it  is  to 
be  regarded  as  the  invariable  and  principal  result  of  the 
activity  of  the  elements  of  a  part  which  is  to  be  looked 
upon  as  the  organ  of  Consciousness,  there  is  still  room 
for  doubt;  there  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a  certainty  that 
the  various  modes  of  Consciousness  which  may  be 
called  into  activity  by  any  sets  of  nerve-changes  are 
not  to  be  considered  as  correlatable  with  such  nerve- 
changes  as  a  whole.  c  We  have  good  reason  to  con- 
clude/ as  Mr.  Spencer  says, c  that  at  the  particular  place 
in  a  superior  nerve-centre  where,  in  some  mysterious 
way,  an  objective  change  or  nervous  action  causes  a 
subjective  change  or  feeling,  there  exists  a  quantitative 
equivalence  between  the  two :  the  amount  of  sensation 
is  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  molecular  transfor- 
mation that  takes  place  in  the  vesicular  substance  af- 
fected. But  there  is  no  fixed  or  even  approximate 
quantitative  relation  between  this  amount  of  molecular 
transformation  in  the  sentient  centre  and  the  periphe- 
ral disturbance  originally  causing  it.'  So  that,  as  the 
same  writer  also  says  l : — c  Between  the  outer  force 
and  the  inner  feeling  it  excites,  there  is  no  such  corre- 
lation as  that  which  the  physicist  calls  equivalence — 
nay,  the  two  do  not  even  maintain  an  unvarying  pro- 
portion. Equal  amounts  of  the  same  force  arouse  dif- 
ferent amounts  of  the  same  feeling,  if  the  circumstances 
differ.  Only  while  all  the  conditions  remain  constant 

1  '  Principles  of  Psychology,'  1869,  No.  22,  p.  194. 


46  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

is  there  something  like  a  constant  ratio  between  the 
physical  antecedent  and  the  psychical  consequent.' 

From  all  this  it  may  be  imagined  how  hopeless  the 
attempt  would  be  to  establish  anything  like  a  quanti- 
tative estimate  of  the  amount  of  force  answering  to 
these  different  results  of  the  activity  of  the  Nervous 
System.  In  considering  the  question  of  muscular  acti- 
vity and  its  correlation  with  physical  force,  we  have  to 
do  with  a  measurable  effect  under  the  form  of  mecha- 
nical energy.  But  the  manifestations  of  the  activity 
of  the  nervous  system  are  much  more  subtle  and  elud- 
ing. How  is  it  possible  for  us  to  estimate  the  value  of 
the  energy  expended  in  regulating  the  nutrition  of  the 
body?  How,  in  a  motor  act,  shall  we  separate  what 
is  due  to  the  nerve  and  what  to  the  muscle? — nay, 
where  Feeling  is  aroused,  where  Consciousness  appears, 
how  shall  we  estimate  the  equivalent  value  of  this, 
which  each  one  knows  in  himself  alone,  and  which 
seems  to  differ  so  absolutely  from  everything  else  in 
the  universe  ?  However  probable  it  may  be  that  what 
we  know  as  Sensation  and  Thought  are  as  truly  the  direct 
results  of  the  molecular  activity l  of  certain  nerve- 
centres,  as  mechanical  energy  is  the  direct  result  of  a 
muscle,  this  cannot  be  proved.  MM.  Beclard  and 
Heidenhain  have  shown  us  how,  when  a  muscle  con- 
tracts, an  amount  of  heat  disappears  which  holds  a 

1  For  some  most  admirable  and  suggestive  remarks  as  to  the  probable 
unit  of  Consciousness,  we  would  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  Spencer's  '  Princi- 
ples of  Psychology,'  No.  21,  pp.  148-158. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  47 

definite  relation  to  the  amount  of  work  done  j  and  so 
it  may  well  be  that  when  the  nerve-centre  is  in  ac- 
tion— when  fains  and  pleasures  are  felt,  when  thoughts 
are  rife — this  is  possible  only  by  reason  of  a  disappear- 
ance or  metamorphosis  of  a  certain  amount  of  potential 
energy  which  had  previously  been  locked  up  in  some  of 
the  organic  constituents  of  the  body.  We  cannot,  how- 
ever, prove  that  it  is  so,  because  we  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  show  that  there  is  evolved,  during  brain  action, 
an  amount  of  heat,  or  other  mode  of  physical  energy, 
less  than  there  would  have  been  had  not  the  Sensations 
been  felt  and  the  Thoughts  thought ;  and  because  we 
have  no  means  of  ascertaining  what  amount  of  sensa- 
tion or  of  thought  corresponds  to  a  unit  of  heat — 
because  it  is  even  impossible  for  us  to  gauge  the  strength 
of  a  sensation,  or  the  force  of  a  thought — we  are  cut 
off  from  all  means  of  comparison. 

Knowing,  however,  what  we  now  do  concerning  the 
evolution  of  heat  in  the  animal  body  and  concerning 
the  contractility  of  muscle ;  knowing  that  respiration 
is,  in  the  main,  a  process  of  oxidation  j  that  digestion 
is  an  essentially  chemical  process ;  it  can  no  longer  be 
said — as  of  old  it  was  said — that  the  manifestations  of 
Life  in  organic  beings  take  place  independently  of 
physico-chemical  laws,  and  are  regulated  solely  by  oc- 
cult influences.  This  error  has  been  fast  disappearing 
since  Lavoisier  sought  to  demonstrate  the  real  nature 
of  the  phenomena  taking  place  in  living  things,  and 
since  he  first  taught  that  many  of  them  were  essentially 


48  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

chemical  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  word.  What 
has  already  been  accomplished  may  well  lead  us  to  be- 
lieve that,  as  time  goes  on,  the  torch  of  Science  will 
enable  us  to  penetrate  still  further  and  to  throw  light 
upon  some  of  the  remaining  mysteries  of  vital  pheno- 
mena. 

All  that  we  know  already,  however,  concerning  the 
higher  animals  points  strongly  to  the  truth  of  the  con- 
clusion which  is  thus  expressed  by  Gavarret : — c  The 
action  of  oxygen  upon  the  material  of  the  blood  is  then 
the  sole  source 1  of  force  of  which  the  animal  can  avail 
itself.  In  order  to  accomplish  all  the  internal  and  ex- 
ternal work  necessary  for  the  nutrition  and  for  the 
development  of  the  individual,  for  the  propagation  of 
its  kind,  and  for  its  action  upon  the  surrounding  world, 
the  animal, makes  use  of  the  force  set  at  liberty  during 
the  conflict  of  oxygen  borrowed  from  the  air  with  the 
elements  of  its  food.  But  these  alimentary  substances 
in  again  taking  on,  under  the  influence  of  the  burn- 
ing action  of  oxygen,  their  primitive  mineral  forms, 
can  only  set  at  liberty,  and  place  at  the  disposal  of  the 
animal,  their  own  potential  energy — that  is  to  say,  that 
quantity  of  force  which  was  borrowed  by  the  plant 
from  the  solar  radiations  in  order  to  convert  mineral 
matter  into  organic  matter.5 

Matter  and  force  are  inseparable — neither  can  exist 
alone ;  and  just  as  the  substances  which  enter  into  the 

1  Either  immediate,  or  mediate. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  49 

composition  of  the  plant  or  of  the  animal — however 
high  or  however  low  it  may  be  in  the  scale  of  organi- 
zation— have  been  ultimately  derived  from  the  mineral 
world,  so  have  the  forces  at  work  therein  been  derived 
from  this  source  and  from  the  Sun — our  great  centre 
of  light  and  heat. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  'VITAL  PRINCIPLE' — NATURE  OF  LIFE. 

Artificial  production  of  Organic  compounds.  Genesis  of  living  Forms. 
Influence  of  modern  researches  upon  conception  of  Life.  Theories 
concerning  Life.  Views  of  Atomists.  Pantheistic  conception  of 
Anaxagoras.  The  '  Archseus '  of  Paracelsus.  '  Vitalistic'  theories. 
Difficulties  of.  Based  on  misconceptions.  Illustrations.  Genesis 
of  Living  Things.  Life  a  result  of  molecular  organization.  Defini- 
tions of  '  Life.'  Why  unsatisfactory.  Correspondence  between 
Organisms  and  their  Environment.  Views  of  Coleridge.  '  Life'  an 
abstract  name  for  the  'qualities'  of  certain  material  aggregates. 
Mere  arbitrary  nature  of  distinction  into  Living  and  not-living. 
Gradual  passage  of  the  not-living  into  the  Living. 

BUT  whilst  the  labours  of  one  set  of  enquirers  have, 
as  we  have  seen,  been  directed  towards  the  elu- 
cidation of  the  real  nature  of  the  phenomena  taking 
place  in  living  things,  with  the  result  of  showing  them 
to  be  much  less  obscure  than  had  been  previously  sup- 
posed, those  of  another  set  have  been  concentrated  upon 
attempts  to  build  up  artificially  in  the  chemical  labo- 
ratory some  of  those  organic  compounds  which  had 
hitherto  been  regarded  as  the  peculiar  products  of  the 
living  organism.  The  labours  of  Wohler,  Pelouze, 
Kolbe,  Wurtz,  Berthelot,  and  other  celebrated  chemists 
have  been  especially  successful  in  this  direction-  and 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  51 

we  now  can  name  a  goodly  array  of  compounds,  pre- 
viously known  only  as  constituents  of  animal  or  vege- 
table organisms,  and  previously  supposed  to  be  incapable 
of  coming  into  existence  save  under  the  influence  of 
vital  forces  and  vital  structures,  which  are,  neverthe- 
less, continually  being  built  up  in  the  chemical  labo- 
ratory, out  of  more  elementary  substances,  by  processes 
of  synthesis  \ 

While  thus  much  has  been  done  to  throw  light  upon 
some  of  the  phenomena  exhibited  by  living  beings,  and 
to  diminish  the  mystery  hitherto  supposed  to  enshroud 
the  origin  of  organic  compounds,  other  efforts,  by  no 
means  unsuccessful,  have  been  made  to  account  for 
the  production  of  organic  forms,  and  to  reveal  how 
such  shapes  as  are  met  with  amongst  the  structural 
units  of  an  organ,  as  well  as  those  of  entire  organisms, 
are  the  resultants  of  physical  forces  acting  upon  plastic 
and  modifiable  tissues.  Mr.  Rainey2  has  sought  to  show 

1  Speaking  on  this  subject,  Gavarret  says  ('  Phe"nomenes  Physiques  de 
la  Vie,'  1869,  p.  269),  '  De  nombreuses  et  importantes  syntheses  ont  ete 
realisres.     Les  Carbures  d'hydrogene  peuvent  etre  consider es  comme 
formant  la  transition  entre  1'etat  mineral  et  1'etat  organique ;  beaucoup 
de  ces  composes  tinaires  ont  etc*  reproduits  directement :   1'acetylene, 
1'ethylene  et  ses  homologues,  la  benzine  et  ses  homologues,  la  naph- 
taline,  1'anthracine,   etc.      Les  chimistes  ont   aussi  opere  la   synthese 
d'une   quantite    considerables   de    composes    oxygenes    ternaires  :    des 
alcools,  des  aldehydes,  des  acides,  des  ethers,  des  corps  gras,  le  phenol 
et  plusieurs  de  ses  homologues,  etc.     Quelques  substances  azotees  ont 
ete  aussi  reproduites  par  synthese :  le  cyanogene  et  ses  derives,  1'uree, 
la  taurine,  le  glycocolle  et  ses  homologues/  etc. 

2  '  On  the  Mode  of  Formation  of  Shells,  of  Animals,  of  Bone,'  &c. 
i858v 

E    2 


52  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

that  the  mode  of  formation  of  the  shells  of  animals, 
of  bone,  and  of  other  structures,  may  be  explained 
by  a  process  of  c  molecular  coalescence,3  and  that  more 
or  less  similar  structures  may  be  artificially  prepared  j 
and  Dr.  Montgomery1  has  shown  how  myeline,  a  pe- 
culiar organic  substance,  under  various  physical  con- 
ditions can  be  made  to  assume  almost  all  the  different 
forms  of  cells  at  present  known ;  whilst  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  c  Principles  of  Biology,'  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  has  handled  the  subject  of  morphological 
development,  in  all  its  details,  with  that  fulness  and 
philosophic  grasp  for  which  he  is  so  distinguished. 
The  shapes  of  plants — of  their  branches,  leaves,  flowers, 
and  cells — are  considered  on  the  one  hand,  and  those 
of  animals  and  of  their  several  parts  on  the  other ; 
and  it  has  been  shown  that  very  many  of  the  pecu- 
liarities actually  met  with  can  be  fully  accounted  for 
by  a  consideration  of  the  nature  of  the  incident  forces 
or  physical  conditions  to  which  they  have  been  sub- 
jected during  the  progress  of  their  growth.  Indeed, 
he  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  cit  is  an  inevitable 
deduction  from  the  persistence  of  force,  that  organic 
forms  which  have  been  progressively  evolved  must 
present  just  those  fundamental  traits  of  form  which  we 
find  them  present.  It  cannot  but  be  that,  during  the 
intercourse  between  an  organism  and  its  environment, 
equal  forces,  acting  under  equal  conditions,  must  pro- 

1  'Proceedings  of  Royal  Society,'  1867. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  53 

duce  equal  effects;  for  to  say  otherwise  is,  by  impli- 
cation., to  say  that  some  force  can  present  more  or  less 
than  its  equivalent  effect,  which  is  to  deny  the  per- 
sistence of  force.  Hence  those  parts  of  an  organism 
which  are  by  its  habits  of  life  exposed  to  like  amounts 
and  like  combinations  of  actions  and  reactions,  must 
develope  alike ;  while  unlikeness  of  development  must 
as  unavoidably  follow  unlikeness  among  these  agencies. 
And,  this  being  so,  all  the  specialities  of  symmetry, 
and  unsymmctry,  and  asymmetry  which  we  have 
traced,  are  necessary  consequences.' 

It  is  impossible  to  ignore  the  general  direction  and 
bearing  which  the  results  of  all  the  researches  hitherto 
referred  to  must  have  upon  our  modern  conception  of 
c  Life/  We  have  seen  that  in  the  minds  of  all  scientific 
men,  the  doctrine  of  the  Persistence  of  Force,  or  of  the 
Conservation  of  Energy,  as  it  is  also  termed,  now  rests 
upon  just  as  sure  a  basis  as  the  really  equivalent  doc- 
trine of  the  persistence  or  Indestructibility  of  Matter1. 
And  if  matter  and  force  are  absolutely  inseparable,  if 
the  ons  cannot  exist  without  the  other,  it  will  be  seen 
that,  even  independently  of  the  experimental  support 
which  the  doctrine  has  received,  the  reality  of  the 
Persistence  of  Force  must  have  followed  as  a  logical 

1  As  we  have  previously  intimated,  the  popular  doctrine  concerning 
the  Indestructibility  of  Matter  resolves  itself  philosophically  into  the 
really  fundamental  notion  of  the  Persistence  of  Force.  Force  and 
Matter  are  two  aspects  of  a  something  one  and  indivisible ;  only  the  idea 
of  Matter  is  a  conception  mentally  superadded  to  the  various  Force- 
attributes  which  are  alone  correlatable  with  consciousness. 


54  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

necessity  from  the  Persistence  of  Matter,  which  was 
denied  by  none.  We  have  seen  also  how  firmly  the 
doctrine  has  gradually  been  gaining  possession  of  the 
minds  of  the  best  scientific  workers  of  all  kinds,  that 
the  so-called  c vital'  forces — about  the  very  name  of 
which  there  was  formerly  such  a  ring  of  mystery — 
are,  after  all,  nothing  more  than  incident  physical 
forces  which  have  been  transformed  and  conditioned 
by  their  c  passage  through  an  organism/  or,  as  we  pre- 
fer to  express  it,  are  physical  forces  which  have  un- 
dergone change  and  have  ceased  to  exist  as  such  in 
giving  birth  to  those  material  combinations,  which  con- 
stitute the  very  matter  of  the  organism  itself.  As 
Dr.  Frankland  has  said,  c  An  animal,  however  high  its 
organization,  can  no  more  generate  [that  is,  actually 
create]  an  amount  of  force  capable  of  moving  a  grain 
of  sand,  than  a  stone  can  fall  upwards,  or  a  loco- 
motive drive  a  train  without  fuel/  The  force  mani- 
fested during  the  contraction  of  muscles  is  the  result 
of  the  setting  free  of  an  equivalent  amount  of  poten- 
tial energy  by  the  tissue  disturbances  and  chemical 
changes,  of  various  kinds,  which  immediately  precede 
and  accompany  the  motor  act.  And,  moreover,  if 
it  can  be  shown  that  the  processes  taking  place 
in  living  beings  are  in  great  part  amenable  to  and 
governed  by  ordinary  physico-chemical  laws,  instead 
of  being  processes  altogether  occult  and  peculiar ; 
if  it  can  be  shown  that  products  hitherto  believed  to 
be  producible  only  under  the  influence  of  vital  actions 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  55 

taking  place  within  living  beings,  are  capable  of  being 
built  up  artificially  by  the  chemist  in  his  laboratory  j 
and  if  it  can  be  shown  that  the  shapes  and  forms 
assumed  by  such  organic  structures  are  the  natural 
resultants  of  incident  forces  acting  upon  the  plastic 
and  modifiable  tissues  of  which  they  are  composed — 
then  may  we  indeed  say  that  much  of  the  mystery 
which  formerly  obscured  vital  phenomena  is  being 
gradually  removed.  But  let  it  not  be  supposed  that 
we  go  further  than  this,  that  we  suppose  all  mystery 
has  vanished.  No,  enough  still  remains  to  fill  our 
minds  with  the  deepest  awe  and  reverence.  The 
most  intimate  processes  and  phenomena  of  Life 
remain  utterly  inexplicable.  We  have  removed  the 
thick  husks,  but  the  kernel  of  the  nut  as  yet  lies 
hidden,  enveloped  in  an  impenetrable  shell.  What 
do  we  know  concerning  the  actual  phenomena  of  nutri- 
tion? They  are  still  inscrutable  mysteries.  By  what 
molecular  or  other  laws  does  an  organic  unit  assi- 
milate to  itself  matter  of  a  particular  kind  out  of  a 
complex  mixture,  convert  it  into  its  own  substance, 
and  endow  it  with  its  own  properties  of  doing  like- 
wise? Believing,  as  we  may,  that  sensation  and  thought 
are  the  products  of  molecular  changes  taking  place  in 
nerve  organs,  does  this  belief  assist  us  one  iota  in 
explaining  the  deeper  facts  ?  Can  we  at  present  frame 
to  ourselves  any  possible  or  conceivable  way  in  which 
mere  molecular  motion  can  result  in  the  manifestation 
of  such  phenomena  as  sensations,  thoughts,  and  all  the 


56  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

various  modes  of  self-consciousness  ?  Whilst  such  pro- 
blems, and  many  others  just  as  difficult,  remain  for  our 
solution,  it  could  never  be  supposed  that  we  believed 
the  problems  of  Life  to  be  solved.  We  have  cleared 
some  of  the  approaches,  but  there  is  still  an  impene- 
trable temple  of  mystery.  Fully  to  appreciate  the  ex- 
tent of  our  ignorance,  however,  is  the  best  and  surest 
preparation  for  widening  the  sphere  of  our  knowledge. 

Glancing  now,  for  a  moment,  at  the  conceptions  of 
Life  which  have  been  hitherto  entertained,  let  us  see 
how  far  they  are  in  accordance  with  modern  scientific 
notions  concerning  Force. 

Two  fundamentally  opposite  doctrines  have  been 
maintained  again  and  again  as  to  the  nature  of  Life, 
under  one  or  the  other  of  which  all  the  views  ever  pro- 
mulgated, on  this  subject,  may  be  ranged.  According 
to  the  one  school,  Life  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  prin- 
ciple or  cause  of  organization  •  and  according  to  the 
other,  Life  is  the  product  or  effect  of  organization. 
Democritus  and  the  other  Atomists  accounted  for  the 
whole  phenomenal  universe  on  the  supposition  that 
the  different  kinds  of  matter  are  made  up  of  the  most 
variously  arranged  ultimate  particles  or  atoms.  These 
atoms  differing  from  one  another  in  size,  shape,  and 
weight,  were  nevertheless  thought  to  be  indivisible. 
They  were  supposed  by  Democritus  to  be  able  to  group 
and  arrange  themselves  and  so  to  form  the  various 
material  substances  which  exist  by  virtue  of  these 
inherent  tendencies.  Nothing  but  predestination  or 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  57 

c blind  necessity'  could,  therefore,  be  assigned  by  De- 
mocritus  as  the  active  cause  of  the  continual  mutations 
taking  place  in  the  material  world.  Such  a  spiritless 
conception  of  the  Universe  was,  however,  resisted  by 
Anaxagoras.  He  too,  like  his  predecessors,  believed 
that  in  the  ordinary  course  of  things  nothing  was 
created  and  nothing  was  destroyed — there  was  only  a 
continual  flux  and  mutation.  But  the  necessity  of  a 
moving  force,  hitherto  almost  neglected,  was  fully 
realized  by  him.  'The  mythical  powers  of  love  and 
hate,  the  blind  necessity  of  the  mechanical  theory, 
explained  nothing;  or  at  least,  whatever  they  explained, 
they  certainly  explained  not  the  existence  of  design  in 
the  process  of  nature.  It  was  consequently  seen  to 
be  necessary  that  this  notion  of  design  should  be 
identified  with  that  of  the  moving  power.  This 
Anaxagoras  accomplished  by  his  idea  of  a  world- 
forming  intelligence  (vovs)  that  was  absolutely  sepa- 
rated and  free  from  matter  and  that  acted  on  design1.' 
Although  the  function  of  the  vovs  was,  therefore,  essen- 
tially that  of  a  mere  mover  or  re-arranger  of  the  in- 
finitely minute  particles  of  things  into  definite  shapes 
and  forms,  which  were  thus  abstracted  from  an  original 
chaotic  intermixture,  still  Anaxagoras  did  endow  it 
with  the  attribute  of  thinking — with  the  power  of 
acting  in  accordance  with  design.  cln  the  case  of 
organized  beings  more  especially,  we  have  the  presence 

1  Schwegler's  '  Handbook  of  the  History  of  Philosophy,'  translated 
by  Stirling,  p.  28. 


58  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


of  the  matter  -moving  VQV^  which  as  animating 
soul,  is  immanent  in  all  living  beings  (plants,  ani- 
mals, men),  but  in  different  degrees  of  amount  and 
power.  In  this  way  we  see  that  it  is  the  business 
of  the  vovs  to  dispose  all  things,  each  in  accordance 
with  its  own  nature,  into  a  universe  that  shall  com- 
prehend within  it  the  most  manifold  forms  of  exist- 
ence, and  to  enter  into,  and  identify  itself  with,  this 
universe  as  the  power  of  individual  vitality.3  Thus 
was  initiated  the  ancient  pantheistic  notion  of  a 
general  soul  or  Spirit  pervading  all  things  —  a  notion 
which,  with  more  or  less  of  modification,  not  un- 
frequently  appears  in  our  own  times,  and  which  was 
exquisitely  expressed  by  our  poet  Wordsworth  in  his 
(  Excursion,'  when  he  said  :  — 

'  To  every  form  of  being  is  assigned 
An  active  principle  :  howe'er  removed 
From  sense  and  observation,  it  subsists 
In  all  things,  in  all  nature,  in  the  stars 
Of  azure  heaven,  the  unenduring  clouds  ; 
In  flower  and  tree,  in  every  pebbly  stone 
That  paves  the  brooks.' 

Whilst  therefore  the  ancients  looked  upon  the  spirit 
or  the  c  animating  principle  '  of  any  living  thing  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  general  c  Soul  of  Nature,' 

'  Divinae  particulam  aurae,' 

Paracelsus  and  his  followers,  on  the  contrary,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  regarded  the  c  vital  principle'  as  an 
entity  or  self-existent  something,  altogether  indepen- 
dent and  peculiar.  This  distinct  vital  principle  was 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  59 

presumed  to  preside  over  the  processes  of  nutrition  and 
was  known  by  the  name  Arckteus.  The  doctrines  of 
Paracelsus  were  more  especially  developed  by  his  dis- 
ciple Van  Helmont,  who  sought  to  explain  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  Life  by  the  occurrence  of  chemical  changes 
in  the  organism  taking  place  under  the  guidance  of 
this  distinct  spiritual  entity  or  c  Archaeus,3  whose  place 
of  abode  was  the  cardiac  orifice  of  the  stomach.  The 
cArchxus'  of  Van  Helmont,  however,  was  only  one, 
though  the  chief,  of  many  c  vital  spirits,'  which  were 
allotted  severally  to  each  organ  of  the  body.  In  health 
there  was  supposed  to  be  a  harmonious  action  of  these 
various  c  vital  spirits,'  whilst  disease  was  a  result  of 
their  discord.  But  whether  the  c  vital  principle'  was 
looked  upon  as  a  something  altogether  peculiar  and 
independent,  or  as  an  integral  part  of  the  general  c  Soul 
of  Nature,'  in  either  case  the  organism  as  an  organism 
was  supposed  to  have  owed  its  nature  and  peculiarities 
to  the  influence  and  active  working  of  the  c  vital 
principle.' 

Then,  in  all  but  modern  times,  Life  was  by  the 
greater  number  of  physiologists  looked  upon  as  a  con- 
sequence rather  than  as  a  cause  of  organization ;  whilst 
c  vital '  actions,  or  the  phenomena  presented  by  living 
beings,  were  supposed  to  be  altogether  special  in  kind — 
to  be  the  peculiar  manifestations  of  the  inherent  acti- 
vity of  the  organized  body,  and  to  have  no  necessary 
relationship  with  the  physical  forces  of  the  inorganic 
world.  Later  still,  as  we  have  seen,  this  view  gradually 


60  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

underwent  a  most  important  modification:  'vital' 
phenomena,  instead  of  being  looked  upon  as  altogether 
peculiar,  were  gradually  more  and  more  recognized  as 
the  results  of  physical  forces  which,  as  Dr.  Carpenter 
expressed  it,  had  been  transformed  or  conditioned  in 
various  ways  by  their  c  passage  through  the  organism.' 
And  now  amongst  nearly  all  advanced  physiologists  the 
same  kind  of  Correlation  is  implicitly  believed  to  exist 
between  the  Vital  and  the  Physical  Forces,  and  between 
the  several  vital  forces,  as  we  know  exists  between  the 
physical  forces  Inter  se.  Some  there  are,  however,  who 
still  contend  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  a  peculiar 
c  vital  force,'  a  something  which  finds  no  place  amongst 
this  circle  of  correlated  energies1.  It  is  argued,  that  in 
order  to  bring  about  this  metamorphosis  of  the  physical 
forces,  which  is  to  give  rise  to  the  various  manifesta- 
tions of  vegetable  and  animal  life,  there  must  be 
needed  some  force  inherent  in  the  organism  as  a  whole, 
and  in  every  part  of  its  structure.  That  this  force  or 
power,  altogether  independent  of  the  correlated  series, 
is  the  vital  force — that  which  conditions  or  transforms 
the  physical  forces,  in  order  that  they  may  give  rise  to 
the  most  varied  vital  phenomena.  But  if  the  vital  or 

1  Dr.  Lionel  Beale,  for  instance,  says  in  his  new  work  on  '  Protoplasm,' 
— '  In  order  to  account  for  the  facts,  I  conceive  that  some  directing 
agency  of  a  kind  peculiar  to  the  living  world  exists  in  association  with 
every  particle  of  living  matter,  which,  in  some  hitherto  unexplained 
manner,  affects  temporarily  its  elements,  and  determines  the  precise 
changes  which  are  to  take  place  when  the  living  matter  again  comes 

der  the  influence  of  certain  external  conditions.'    (2nd  ed.  p.  119  ) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  61 

directive  power  resident  in  each  particle  of  a  living- 
being  be  other  than  a  transformed  physical  force,  it 
must  be  one  which — in  spite  of  the  well-known  formula 
c  ex  nihilo  nikll  fit ' — is  capable  of  indefinite  self-multi- 
plication. Either  such  force  must  be  continually  spring- 
ing into  being  without  a  cause — originating  itself,  or 
growing  out  of  nothing — which  is  an  absurdity;  or  else 
within  the  human  ovum,  or  within  that  of  any  other 
animal,  there  must  be  locked  up^  in  this  one  tiny  microscopic 
cel^  the  'whole  of  the  peculiar  'vital  power  which  is  after- 
wards to  diffuse  itself  throughout  the  body,  and  which, 
later  still,  is  to  serve  as  the  guiding  principle  of  the 
whole  man.  How  could  the  tiny  cell  retain  all  this 
priceless  energy  ?  What  hydraulic  press  would  be  ade- 
quate to  bring  about  such  concentration,  even  were 
it  destined  to  be  locked  up  within  walls  of  adamant, 
rather  than  of  tender  protoplasm  ?  Then,  too,  we  come 
back  to  the  further  difficulty,  as  to  how  this  original 
ovum  acquired  its  marvellously  concentrated  quotum  of 
vital  force.  The  ovum  is  but  a  differentiated  product, 
an  individual  cell,  arising  from  the  almost  infinite  sub- 
division and  growth  of  a  pre-existing  ovum,  and,  there- 
fore, it  can  only  have  received  an  infinitesimal  share  of 
the  original  vital  force  with  which  its  parent  germ  was 
endowed.  This  parent  germ  was  similarly  related  to 
its  progenitor,  and  so  we  might  run  back  through  the 
races  and  through  the  ages,  did  not  the  very  idea  carry 
absurdity  in  its  face.  A  force  independent  of  the 
correlated  series  of  physical  forces,  and  yet  capable 


62  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

of  perpetual  existence,  with  apparently  undiminished 
powers  in  spite  of  an  almost  infinite  number  of  divi- 
sions and  subdivisions,  surely  there  are  few  who  will 
believe  that  such  a  force  can  exist.  The  doctrine 
is  absolutely  inconceivable,  it  cannot  be  realized  in 
thought.  Dr.  Bence  Jones  has  well  said  \  c  We  know 
now  that  in  all  living  things  no  separate  or  peculiar 
matter  is  present.  The  stuff  which  takes  part  in 
the  living  actions  and  the  forces  which  are  inherent 
in  that  stuff  are  there,  and  indestructible  and  in- 
separable. Inorganic  matter  and  inorganic  force  al- 
ways exist  together  in  living  things;  so  that  if  a 
separable  living  force  be  also  present,  then  we  must 
admit  that  two  totally  different  laws  of  force  must 
be  in  action  at  the  same  time  in  the  same  matter. 
The  unity  of  nature  will  at  least  be  preserved  by  our 
hesitation  to  admit  the  assumption  of  a  force  capable 
of  creation  and  annihilation,  until  some  very  conclusive 
evidence  be  obtained  that  there  actually  is  in  living 
things  such  a  force  or  forces  capable  of  being  separated 
entirely  from  the  matter  of  which  they  are  made.'  And 
in  addition  to  this  kind  of  argument,  we  may  well  ask 
whether  there  is  the  need  (such  as  the  advocates  for 
the  existence  of  a  peculiar  and  independent  c  vital 
principle'  suppose)  for  a  special  force  to  effect  the 
transformation  of  physical  forces  within  organized 
structures  ?  The  phenomena  presented  by  living 

1  Croonian  Lectures  '  On  Matter  and  Force '  at  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  ('British  Medical  Journal,'  May  16,  1868,  p.  471). 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  63 

beings  are  now  presumed  by  almost  all  physiologists 
to  be  dependent  upon  the  agency  of  transformed 
physical  forces?  And,  if  this  be  the  case,  we  may 
well  ask  (seeing  that  they  are  all  members  of  a  cor- 
related series)  why  a  special  force  should  be  needed 
to  effect  the  transformation  of  physical  forces  into 
those  modes  of  energy  which  are  active  in  the 
manifestations  of  living  beings,  whilst  no  peculiar 
force  is  deemed  necessary  to  effect  the  transforma- 
tion of  one  mode  of  physical  force  into  any  other 
mode  of  physical  force  ?  The  mere  advancement 
of  such  a  supposition  would  seem  to  show  that  the 
promulgators  of  it  had  not  seized  the  very  essence  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Persistence  of  Force.  Matter  and 
force,  it  says,  are  inseparable ;  the  latter  manifests 
itself  as  the  attributes  or  qualities  of  the  former,  and 
necessarily,  if,  under  the  influence  of  communicated 
Motion  or  Force,  the  particles  of  matter  assume  dif- 
ferent relationships  to  one  another,  this  matter  will  be 
changed  in  its  qualities,  and  will  display  the  same  to 
us  under  the  guise  of  different  attributes  or  force-mani- 
festations1. When  mechanical  energy  is  converted  into 

1  '  Redistributions  of  matter,'  Mr.  Spencer  says,  '  imply  concomitant 
redistributions  of  motion.  That  which  under  one  of  its  aspects  we  con- 
template as  an  alteration  of  arrangement  among  the  parts  of  a  body  is, 
under  a  correlative  aspect,  an  alteration  of  arrangement  among  certain 
momenta  whereby  these  parts  are  impelled  to  their  new  positions.  .  .  . 
Inseparably  connected  as  they  are,  these  two  orders  of  phenomena  are 
liable  to  be  confounded  together.'  ('  Principles  of  Biology,'  vol.  i.  p.  43.) 
And  again,  he  points  out  that  the  '  transformation  of  ethereal  undulations 


64  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

heat,  the  motion  in  mass,  or  molar  motion,  of  one  body 
expends  itself  as  the  body  is  arrested  in  producing 
an  equivalent  molecular  motion,  or  motion  of  the  par- 
ticles, in  its  own  substance  and  in  those  of  the  body 
by  which  it  has  been  arrested.  But  here  there  is  a 
simple  transference  of  the  motion  of  the  mass  into  the 
more  diffuse  motion  of  the  particles  of  the  masses. 
The  motion  ceases  to  exist  in  the  mass  as  what  we 
ordinarily  call  motion,  though  it  persists  for  a  time  in 
the  atoms  or  molecules  of  the  masses,  and  manifests 
itself  in  the  form  of  heat.  And,  similarly,  when  the 
expansive  motions  of  the  particles  of  bodies  are  checked 
(and  mechanical  work  is  done),  the  heat  diminishes  in 
quantity  in  proportion  as  a  motion  of  the  resisting  mass 
is  produced.  When  heat  gives  rise  to  electricity  in  a 
thermo-electric  pile,  a  certain  quantity  of  the  incident 
heat  ceases  to  exist  as  heat.  By  acting  upon  the  related 
metals,  it  has  been  able  to  bring  about  certain  mole- 
cular re-arrangements  of  the  particles  of  these,  and 
owing  to  this  new  arrangement,  the  attributes  of  the 
metals  or  their  force- manifestations  are  altered.  The 
newly-arranged  particles  cease  to  manifest  heat,  though 
they  show  an  equivalent  amount  of  electrical  pro- 
perties. Now,  in  these  cases,  we  do  not  postulate  the 
existence  of  a  peculiar  force  in  the  molecules  of  the 
bodies  by  the  influence  of  which  the  incident  physical 

into  certain  molecular  rearrangements  of  an  unstable  kind,  on  the  over- 
throw of  which  the  stored-up  forces  are  liberated  in  new  forms,  is  a 
process  that  underlies  all  organic  phenomena.'  (Loc.  cit.  p.  29.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  65 

forces  are  modified,  so  as  to  give  rise  to  new  electrical 
manifestations.  Such  a  view  might  have  been  admis- 
sible if  forces  were  considered  as  independent  entities, 
capable  of  manifesting  themselves  in  different  ways, 
but  with  an  inherent  obstinacy  of  their  own — an  inborn 
reluctance  to  change  their  mode  of  action — which  could 
only  be  overcome  by  the  superior  energy  of  some  inde- 
pendent, autocratic  demon  situated  in  each  particle  of  a 
body.  We  will  not  speak  of  the  waste  of  energy  which 
would  result,  on  such  a  supposition,  from  the  everlast- 
ing conflict  of  these  powers,  because  such  doctrines  are 
now  effete.  Forces  are  not  separable  entities.  They 
are  merely  modes,  affections,  properties— call  it  what 
you  will — of  matter  j  and,  therefore,  necessarily  vary 
with  the  molecular  states  of  matter.  When  heat  gives 
rise  to  electricity,  a  certain  amount  of  heat  vanishes, 
and  an  equivalent  amount  of  electricity  appears,  be- 
cause the  heat,  under  certain  conditions  of  proximity 
of  other  metals,  has  arranged  the  metallic  molecules  in 
a  different  way.  This  heat  or  force  expends  itself  in 
producing  the  molecular  change,  and  the  result  of  the 
new  molecular  arrangement  is,  that  electrical  pro- 
perties are  manifested  instead  of  heat,  because  elec- 
tricity is  the  property  of  this  particular  molecular 
arrangement,  just  as  heat  was  the  property  of  the 
particles  when  in  their  immediately  antecedent  con- 
dition. This  is  just  parallel  with  what  we  have  pre- 
viously alluded  to  as  characterising  the  transformation 
of  the  motion  of  masses  into  heat,  or  the  motion  of 

F 


66  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

particles.  If  we  suppose  a  wooden  ball  to  be  allowed  to 
drop  from  a  moderate  height  from  the  raised  hand  of  an 
experimenter  into  a  basin  of  water,  we  have  no  difficulty 
in  imagining  what  the  result  would  be.  A  great  splash- 
ing of  the  water  would  occur,  and  a  visible  motion  of  the 
contents  of  the  basin  would  remain  for  a  considerable 
time — though  gradually  diminishing  in  extent,  and 
therefore  in  the  ease  with  which  it  could  be  perceived. 
Here  the  motion  of  one  mass  becomes  arrested,  but 
communicates  itself  in  a  more  diffused  manner  to  a 
mass  of  water,  the  visible  motion  of  which  is  seen  to 
diminish  most  gradually.  But  if  the  ball  had  been 
allowed  to  fall  from  a  height  of  three  hundred  feet, 
instead  of  from  a  height  of  six  feet,  and  if  it  had  fallen 
upon  a  solid  floor  instead  of  into  a  basin  of  water,  then 
(with  the  exception  of  the  motion  of  the  rebound)  all 
the  force  existing  as  visible  motion  would  have  been 
much  more  immediately  expended  in  the  production  of 
molecular  motion  in  the  ball  and  in  the  floor,  and 
this  would  have  given  rise  to  heat,  recognizable  by 
the  aid  of  a  thermoscope.  Now  the  motion  of  a  mass 
is  only  the  motion  of  an  aggregate  of  molecules — the 
molecules  being  numerous  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  mass.  So  that  in  this  case  also,  when  the 
mechanical  energy  resulting  from  molar  motion  is  con- 
verted into  heat,  the  energy  (or  motion)  which  the  mass 
displays  ceases  to  manifest  itself  to  us  as  motion  as 
soon  as  it  has  become  expended  in  the  production  of 
vibrations  in  the  particles  of  the  bodies  which  may 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  67 

reveal  themselves  in  the  form  of  heat.  The  pre-exist- 
ing force  is  itself  the  cause  of  the  change  of  constitution 
which  results  in  the  new  manifestations. 

And,  similarly,  we  have  the  most  perfect  right  to 
expect  that,  when  a  physical  force  gives  rise  to  any 
one  of  the  modes  of  vital  force,  what  takes  place  is 
not  so  much  a  direct  conversion  or  transmutation  of 
the  force  itself,  but  rather  that  the  physical  force 
expends  itself  in  bringing  about  new  collocations  of 
matter — either  in  converting  non-living  into  living 
matter,  or  in  altering  the  molecular  constitution  of 
matter  which  is  already  alive.  The  properties  of  this 
matter  being  what  we  call  c  vital '  properties,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  physical  force  has  been  transmuted  into 
vital  force.  Only  when  understood  in  this  sense,  are 
the  words  c  conversion '  or  c  transmutation '  suitable  for 
the  expression  of  what  really  occurs.  The  almost  ne- 
cessary use  of  these  terms  has,  we  think,  nevertheless 
tended  to  foster  an  erroneous  impression,  which  has 
exercised  its  misleading  influence  by  causing  certain 
physiologists  to  suppose  that  a  special  c  vital  force '  is 
needed  to  effect  the  transmutation  of  incident  physical 
forces  within  the  bodies  of  living  organisms.  In  reality, 
no  special  force  is  in  the  least  needed  to  do  the  work 
of  conversion.  Any  pre-existing  physical  force,  acting 
upon  an  organism,  expends  itself  in  producing  those 
molecular  re- arrangements  which,  with  others,  contri- 
bute to  enable  the  organism  to  carry  on  its  so-called 
c  vital '  processes.  If  the  doctrine  of  the  Correlation 

F  2, 


68  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

of  the  Vital  and  of  the  Physical  forces  is  admitted 
to  be  true,  it  can,  we  think,  be  believed  only  in  this 
form,  and  the  vitalists  must  give  up  their  last  strong- 
hold— we  cannot  even  grant  them  a  right  to  assume 
the  existence  of  a  special  c  vital  force '  whose  peculiar 
office  it  is  to  effect  the  transformation  of  physical 
forces.  The  notion  that  such  a  force  does  exist,  is 
based  upon  no  evidence  j  it  is  a  mere  postulate.  The 
assumption  of  its  existence  carries  with  it  nothing 
but  confusion  and  contradiction,  because  the  very 
supposition  that  it  exists  and  that  it  does  so  act,  is 
totally  adverse  to  the  general  doctrine  of  the  Correla- 
tion of  the  Forces.  Need  we  say  more  ?  Does  it  not 
follow,  if  living  organisms  of  the  simplest  kind  are  ever 
now  evolved  in  solutions  containing  organic  matter, 
that  such  rudimentary  forms  of  life  are  to  be  regarded 
as  resulting  from  the  collocations  of  organic  molecules 
in  peculiar  modes,  brought  about  by  the  expenditure  of 
incident  physical  forces — whilst  the  dynamic  mani- 
festations of  these  peculiar  aggregates  would  constitute 
those  phenomena  which  we  term  vital,  and  which  are 
designated  in  their  generality  by  the  word  c  Life  ? ' 

To  speak  then  of  Life  as  a  result  of  organization 
is  obviously  as  much  in  accordance  with  the  general 
doctrine  which  we  have  been  unfolding,  as  the  other 
view — that  Life  is  a  cause  of  organization — is  opposed  to 
it.  The  last  doctrine  is  an  appanage  of  obsolete  views ; 
it  accords  only  with  the  notion  that  Force  is  a  some- 
thing separate,  or  at  least  separable,  from  matter — a 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  69 

kind  of  entity  or  self-existent  principle.  But  whilst 
we  say  that  Life  is  a  result  of  organization,  we  do 
not  necessarily  mean  of  an  organization  which  is 
capable  of  being  discovered  by  means  of  our  micro- 
scopes— rather,  of  a  molecular  organization,  in  the 
sense  of  a  peculiarly  complex  and  unstable  colloca- 
tion of  the  component  atoms  of  the  matter  displaying 
Life,  which  may  exist  to  perfection  after  its  own 
fashion,  even  in  what  appears  to  be  the  perfectly 
structureless  jelly-mass  constituting  one  of  the  Prot- 
am<eb£  of  Professor  Haeckel.  And  it  is  important  to 
keep  this  difference  in  view — to  remember  that  the 
only  organization  necessary  for  the  display  of  Life  is 
a  molecular  organization  which,  in  the  common  accep- 
tation of  the  term,  has  often  been  regarded  as  no  or- 
ganization at  all.  Mr.  Lewes  says,  c  Although  the 
question  whether  Life  precedes  Organization  has  been 
often  asked,  it  is  a  question  mat  pose'e.  If  by  organiza- 
tion we  are  to  understand  not  simply  organic  substance, 
but  a  more  or  less  complex  arrangement  of  that  sub- 
stance into  separate  organs,  the  question  is  tantamount 
to  asking  whether  the  simplest  animals  and  plants  have 
life  ?  And  to  ask  the  question  whether  Life  precedes 
organic  substance,  is  tantamount  to  asking  whether  the 
convex  surface  of  a  curve  precedes  the  concave,  or 
whether  the  motions  of  a  body  precede  the  body  V  If 
the  word  c  organization'  is  comprehended  in  its  wider 

1  'Fortnightly  Review,'  July,  1868,  p.  73. 


76  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

sense,  however,  we  may  in  answer  to  the  oft-put  ques- 
tion reply  that  Life  it  a  result  of  organization.  Pro- 
viding only  that  the  c  molecular  organization '  is  of  the 
right  kind,  it  is  true  enough,  as  Mr.  Lewes  intimates, 
that  the  two  are  inseparable.  The  word  cLife'  is  only 
a  generalized  expression  signifying  the  sum-total  of  the 
properties  of  matter  possessing  such  an  organization. 
And  matter  is,  as  we  have  before  agreed,  inseparable 
from  its  properties. 

This  brings  us  at  last  to  the  question  of  the  defini- 
tion of  Life.  We  will  say  only  a  very  few  words  on 
this  subject  before  alluding  to  some  of  the  numerous 
attempts  that  have  been  made  in  this  direction,  and 
to  the  degree  of  success  with  which  they  have  been 
attended. 

The  word  c  Life '  is  merely  an  abstract  name  for 
those  sets  of  attributes  or  force-manifestations  of  living 
beings  which  are  usually  spoken  of  as  c  vital  pheno- 
mena/ The  word  itself,  however,  corresponds  only 
with  a  mere  mental  conception  :  we  have  observed  that 
a  number  of  things  (by  common  consent  looked  upon 
as  living  beings,  whether  animal  or  vegetable)  always 
present  a  certain  set  of  phenomena  or  qualities,  and  in 
order  to  express  our  conception  of  these  in  their  gene- 
rality we  employ  the  word  c  Life/  Just  as,  to  take  a 
more  simple  case,  after  having  seen  a  certain  number 
of  things  all  of  which  present  a  black  colour,  we  make 
use  of  the  word  c  blackness'  as  our  name  or  symbol  for 
the  common  attribute  of  all  black  things.  Since,  how- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  7 1 

ever,  this  word  c  blackness7  represents  nothing  but  a 
mere  impression  made  upon  our  mind,  since  it  corre- 
sponds to  no  external  reality  which,  in  the  common 
acceptation  of  the  phrase,  exists  of  and  by  itself,  and 
is  moreover  the  name  of  a  simple  attribute,  it  admits 
of  no  useful  definition l.  The  word  '  Life,'  however,  is 
not  a  simple  abstract  name,  it  is  rather  a  general 
abstract  name,  connoting  certain  fundamental  pro- 
perties of  living  things.  Such  a  general  abstract  name 
may  therefore  be  defined  by  distinguishing  the  nature 
of  the  qualities  which  it  implies.  This  has  been  at- 
tempted by  many,  but  has,  we  think,  been  achieved 
by  none  so  successfully  as  by  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer. 
He  defines  cLife'  as  cThe  continuous  adjustment  of 
internal  relations  to  external  relations,'  and  this  phrase 
is,  perhaps,  the  most  generalized  statement  (being  at 
the  same  time  distinctive)  which  can  be  made  con- 
cerning the  phenomena  presented  by  living  things. 
As  such,  also,  it  doubtless  is  a  formula  of  much 
philosophical  interest,  though  as  a  mere  definition  of 
Life,  that  is  as  an  explanatory  phrase  which  is  likely 
to  make  an  ordinary  reader's  notions  on  the  subject 
any  the  clearer,  we  question  whether  it  will  be  of 
much  service.  This,  however,  is  owing  to  the  in- 
herent difficulty  of  giving  any  intelligible  account  in  a 

.  l  It  certainly  would  answer  no  useful  purpose — would  explain  no- 
thing—if we  defined  '  blackness '  to  be  the  property  or  power  of  ex- 
citing the  sensation  of  black ;  and  yet  this  is  about  the  only  possible 
definition  of  the  word. 


72'  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

definition  of  the  meaning  of  such  a  general  abstract 
term.     The  time  is,  moreover,  well-nigh  passed  when 
much  importance  can  be  attached  to  attempts  to  define 
c  Life.'     Such  an  end  might  have  had  more  attractions 
for  those  who  looked  upon  Life  as  the  manifestation  of 
an  independent  c  principle'  or  entity,  but  it  is  certainly 
far  less  important  for  those  who  look  upon  the  word 
* Life'  as  a  mere  name  connoting  a  set  of  attributes 
which  belong  to  all  living  things.     Believing  this  to  be 
true,   believing   that    anything   which    can   be   called 
Life,  or  the  c  principle'  of  Life,  has  no  more  a  separate 
and   independent   existence    in   the   world    than   that 
'blackness'  has  any  real  existence  apart  from  a  thing 
possessing  this  quality,  it  would  seem  that  the  reader 
would  be  likely  to  derive  clearer  notions  of  the  nature 
of  Life,  if  in  place  of  the  definition  of  this  abstract 
name,  we  were  to  substitute  the  definition  of  a  Living 
Thing1.     This  should  be  done  in  such  general  terms 
that — although  the  definition  may  be  in  itself  distinctive 
and  only  applicable  to  the  objects  in  question — all  things 
manifesting  this  set  of  properties  connoted  by  the  word 
c  Life'  may,  nevertheless,  be  included  under  it.     Such 
a  definition  of  a  Living  Thing  might  stand  as  follows : — 

1  Every  abstract  name  must,  in  fact,  include  in  its  signification  the 
existence  of  some  object  to  which  the  quality,  of  which  it  is  the  name, 
belongs.  And  inasmuch  as  no  Life  can  exist  without  an  organism,  of 
which  it  is  the  phenomenal  manifestation,  so  it  seems  comparatively 
useless  to  attempt  to  define  this  phenomenal  manifestation  alone — and 
what  is  worse,  such  attempts  may  tend  to  keep  up  the  idea  that  Life  is 
an  independent  entity. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  73 

It  is  an  unstable  collocation  of  Matter,  capable  of 
growing  by  selection  and  interstitial  appropriation  of 
new  matter  which  then  assumes  similar  qualities,  of  con- 
tinually varying  in  composition  in  response  to  variations 
in  its  Medium,  and  which  is  capable  of  self-multiplication 
by  the  separation  of  portions  of  its  own  substance 1. 

It  is  one  of  the  properties  of  living  bodies,  one  of 
the  consequences  of  the  peculiar  collocation  of  their 
molecules,  that  they  are  only  slightly  amenable  to  the 
influence  of  some  of  the  physical  forces  which  tend  to 
disintegrate  and  destroy  many  forms  of  not-living 
matter.  It  was  under  the  influence  of  this  considera- 
tion principally,  that  Bichat  was  led  to  define  life  as 


1  M.  Nicolet,  in  his  '  Memoire  sur  les  Amibes  k  Corps  Nu,'  speaking 
of  these  creatures,  which  have  been  subsequently  named  ProtamcebeE 
by  Professor  Haeckel,  and  which  are  about  the  simplest  of  known 
living  things,  says: — 'La  substance  qui  en  forme  le  corps  peut  etre 
considered  comme  1'expression  d'un  premier  degr£  d'animalite  de  la 
matiere  organique.  Ici  point  d'appareils  speciaux  affectes  aux  fonctions 
de  la  vie ;  point  d'organe,  meme  rudimentaire,  indiquant  une  similitude 
plutot  animale  que  ve"getale ;  point  de  muscles,  point  de  fibres,  point  de 
cellules,  rien  de  ce  qui  manifestent  la  vie  dans  ces  deux  regnes :  et  ce- 
pendant  elle  vit,  elle  remplit  des  fonctions  qui  necessitent  des  organes  par- 
ticuliers  dans  tous  les  autres  etres  ;  elle  se  meut,  elle  se  nourrit,  elle  se 
reproduit,  elle  digere,  mais  la  locomotion  s'opere  par  la  pretension  et  la 
retraction  alternative  ou  simultanees  des  differentes  parties  de  sa  masse. 
.  .  .  L'Amibe  n'a  done  aucune  organisation  appreciable;  et  lorsque, 
depouillee  des  matieres  e"trangeres  qu'elle  renferme  presque  toujours  dans 
sa  propre  substance,  elle  glisse  sur  la  surface  d'un  lame  de  verre  im- 
mergee,  elle  se  presente  toujours  comme  une  gelee  vivanfe,  fmement 
granulee,  de"pourvue  de  teguments,  et  d'un  diaphaneite  souvent  telle, 
que  sa  presence  ne  se  manifeste  que  par  un  simple  difference  de  re- 
fraction.'— 'Arcana  Naturae,'  J.  Thompson,  1859,  p.  23. 


74  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

cL'ensemble  des  fonctions  qui  resistant  a  la  mort.' 
Here  the  notion  of  a  certain  antagonism  between  the 
organism  and  its  Medium  is  principally  apparent ; 
whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  definition  of  Mr. 
Herbert  Spencer,  already  alluded  to,  we  have  one  of 
the  most  general  and  inclusive  statements  possible 
concerning  the  phenomena  of  living  things:  Life  is 
rather  represented  as  the  harmonious  reaction  in 
living  matter  to  the  influence  exerted  by  surrounding 
matter  and  force.  Stated  more  fully,  his  conception 
of  life  becomes — c  The  definite  combination  of  hetero- 
geneous changes,  both  simultaneous  and  successive, 
in  correspondence  with  external  coexistences  and  sequences? 
And  how  extremely  important  this  notion  of  reci- 
procal action  is,  has  been  most  happily  dwelt  upon 
by  Mr.  Spencer  *  in  the  following  sentences.  c  We 
habitually  distinguish  between  a  live  object  and  a 
dead  one  by  observing  whether  a  change  which  we 
make  in  surrounding  conditions,  or  one  which  nature 
makes  in  them,  is  or  is  not  followed  by  some  per- 
ceptible change  in  the  object.  By  discovering  that 
certain  things  shrink  when  touched,  or  fly  away  when 
approached,  or  start  when  a  noise  is  made,  the  child 
first,  roughly  discriminates  between  the  living  and  the 
not-living ;  and  the  man,  when  in  doubt  whether  an 
animal  he  is  looking  at  is  dead  or  not,  stirs  it  with 
his  stick ;  or  if  it  be  at  a  distance,  shouts  or  throws 
a  stone  at  it.  Vegetal  and  animal  life  are  alike  pri- 

.*  '  Principles  of  Biology,' vol.  i.  p.  72. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  75 

marily  recognized  by  this  process.  The  tree  that  puts 
out  leaves  when  the  spring  brings  change  of  tempera- 
ture, the  flower  which  opens  and  closes  with  the  rising 
and  setting  of  the  sun,  the  plant  that  droops  when 
the  soil  is  dry  and  re-erects  itself  when  watered,  are 
considered  alive  because  of  these  induced  changes;  in 
common  with  the  zoophyte  which  contracts  on  the 
passing  of  a  cloud  over  the  sun,  the  worm  that  comes 
to  the  surface  when  the  ground  is  continuously  shaken, 
and  the  hedgehog  which  rolls  itself  up  when  attacked.' 
And,  not  only  do  we  expect  some  response  when  a 
living  organism  is  acted  upon  by  a  stimulus,  but  there 
is  a  sort  of  fitness  in  the  response,  different  from  the 
reaction  of  mere  dead  matter  under  certain  changes 
of  condition.  In  the  latter  c  the  changes  have  no 
apparent  relation  to  future  external  events  which  are 
sure  or  likely  to  take  place,'  whilst  in  the  former  the 
vital  changes  manifestly  have  such  relations.  Then 
too,  as  Mr.  Spencer  says,  familiarity  with  the  fact  must 
not  allow  us  to  overlook  the  significance  of  the  con- 
sideration, c  that  there  is  invariably,  and  necessarily, 
a  conformity  between  the  vital  functions  of  any 
organism,  and  the  conditions  in  which  it  is  placed 
— between  the  processes  going  on  inside  of  it,  and 
the  processes  going  on  outside  of  it.  We  know 
that  a  fish  cannot  live  in  air,  or  a  man  in  water. 
An  oak  growing  in  the  ocean,  and  a  sea-weed  on 
the  top  of  a  hill,  are  incredible  combinations  of 
ideas.  We  find  that  every  animal  is  limited  to  a 


76  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

certain  range  of  climate ;  every  plant  to  certain  zones 
of  latitude   and   elevation.     Of  the  marine  flora  and 
fauna,  each  species  is  found  exclusively  between  such 
and   such  depths.     Some  blind  creatures  flourish  only 
in  dark  caves ;  the  limpet  only  where  it  is  alternately 
covered  and  uncovered  by  the  tide ;  the  red-snow  alga 
rarely  elsewhere  than  in  the  arctic  regions  or  among 
alpine  peaks.'     But  having  once  recognized  the  im- 
portance of  this  action  and  reaction  continually  taking 
place  between  the  organism  and  its  environment,  we 
become  the  more  alive  to  the  shortcomings  of  those 
definitions   which   do    not    include    this    fundamental 
notion.     Though  unsatisfactory  for  other  reasons  also, 
the   definition    of  De  Blainville  will   be   seen   to   be 
eminently  defective  in  this  respect.     He  says,  f  Life  is 
the    twofold  internal  movement   of  composition  and 
decomposition,  at  once  general  and  continuous/    Almost 
the  same  objection  may  also  be  alleged  against  the  de- 
finition of  Richerand,  that  c  Life  is  a  collection  of  phe- 
nomena which  succeed  each  other  during  a  limited  time 
in  an  organized  body,'  even  if  it  had  not  been  useless 
as  a  definition  of  Life,  because  the  same  words  would 
be   applicable   to  the   process  of  decay   taking   place 
after  death  in  a  previously  living  body. 

Life,  says  Schelling1,  is  the  c principle  of  individuation^ 
or  the  power  which  unites  a  given  all  into  a  whole? 

1  As  given  in  an  unacknowledged  translation  by  Coleridge  entitled 
'  Hints  towards  the  Formation  of  a  more  Comprehensive  Theory  of 
Life,'  1848,  p.  42. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  77 

But  Schelling,  in  reality,  in  spite  of  the  actual  wording 
of  his  definition1,  looked  upon  the  words  clife'  and 
c  quality '  as  conveying  to  the  mind  almost  identically 
the  same  ideas.  All  things,  therefore,  possessing 
qualities — that  is  everything  in  the  universe — has  a 
Life  of  its  own 2,  varying  though  it  may  in  rank  and 
supremacy,  in  the  case  of  things  ordinarily  spoken  of  as 
non-Jiving  or  living  respectively^.  And  this  brings  us 
to  what  we  consider  to  be  the  true  conception  of  Life 
— to  the  meaning  which  ought  to  be  attached  to  the 
word.  All  bodies  in  Nature  have  properties  or  quali- 
ties— they  are  in  fact  known  to  us  only  as  aggregates 
of  such  and  such  properties.  Bodies  are,  however, 
divided  into  two  great  classes — the  living  and  the 
not-living — according  as  they  do  or  do  not  possess 
certain  qualities  or  properties.  These  differentiating 
qualities  are  those  which  are  generalized  and  included 

1  However  unsatisfactory  Schelling's  formula  may  be  as  a  definition 
of  Life,  we  cannot  fail  to  recognize  that  it  is  an  expression  of  one  of  the 
most  notable  tendencies  of  life  in  all  its  higher  manifestations. 

2  Burdach  (' Traite  de  Physiologic,'  Trad,  par  Jourdan,  1837,  t.  iv. 
p.  149)  says,  '  Effectivement  nous  rencontrons  des  traces  de  vie  dans 
toute  existence  quelconque.' 

5  Thus  are  we  again  brought  face  to  face  with  the  old  philosophic 
conception  that  there  exists  a  '  soul '  in  all  things,  or,  as  Wordsworth 
tells  us,  an  all-pervading  Power : — 

'  Whose  dwelling  is  the  light  of  setting  suns, 
And  the  round  ocean  and  the  living  air, 
And  the  blue  sky,  and  in  the  mind  of  man : 
A  motion  and  a  spirit  that  impels 
All  thinking  things,  all  objects  of  all  thought, 
And  rolls  through  all  things.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


under  the  abstract  name  cLife.'  We  must  not  be 
blinded,  however,  by  the  use  of  such  a  word;  we  must 
not  fall  into  the  old  error  of  supposing  that  because  by 
a  process  of  generalization  we  have  conceived  a  mere 
abstract  notion  which  we  name  c  Life/  that,  therefore, 
there  is  anything  existing,  of  and  by  itself,  answering 
to  this  term.  No,,  each  material  body  has  properties  of 
its  own  —  properties  which  are  due  to  its  molecular  con- 
stitution—and which  make  it  what  we  know  it  to  be. 
These  properties  are,  however,  often  classed  together 
in  a  definite  way  ;  certain  of  the  objects  around  us,  for 
instance,  have  a  power  of  growing,  of  developing,  and 
pf  reproducing  their  kind.  Bodies  possessing  such  pro- 
perties have  been  arbitrarily  named  'Living'  bodies, 
and  the  word  c  Life  '  has  been  used  as  a  mental  symbol 
connoting  the  sum  total  of  the  properties  which  dis- 
tinguish such  an  aggregate  from  the  member  of  the 
other  great  class  whose  representatives  do  not  present 
such  properties.  These  properties  may  be  looked  upon 
as  of  a  higher  and  more  subtle  nature,  but  it  should  be 
distinctly  understood  that  they  are  as  much  dependent 
upon  the  mere  qualities  and  nature  of  the  material 
aggregate  which  displays  them,  as  the  properties  of  a 
metal  or  the  properties  of  a  crystal  are  the  results  of 
the  nature  and  mode  of  collocation  of  the  atoms  of 
which  these  bodies  are  composed.  Hence  in  using  the 
phrase  c  Genesis  of  Life,'  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
we  should,  in  so  doing,  refer  to  the  actual  origination 
of  any  c  principle'  or  c  force'  that  did  not  pre-exist; 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  79 

rather,  we  should  wish  to  convey  the  idea,  that  a  par- 
ticular aggregation  of  matter  had  been  brought  about, 
of  such  a  kind  as  to  enable  it  to  manifest  the  properties 
of  a  Living  Thing,  properties  which  are  expressed  in 
their  generality  by  the  word  cLife.'  Philosophically 
speaking,  therefore,  there  can  be  no  abrupt  line  of 
demarcation  between  the  living  and  the  not-living. 
Living  things  are  peculiar  aggregates  of  ordinary 
matter  and  of  ordinary  force  which  in  their  separate 
states  do  not  possess  the  aggregate  of  qualities  known 
as  c  Life.5  The  transition  must  be  most  gradual,  there- 
fore, between  some  of  the  ordinary  not-living  states 
of  these  and  the  formation  of  those  particular  colloca- 
tions which  constitute  them  living  things.  c Construed 
in  terms  of  evolution,'  as  Mr.  Spencer  says1,  c  every 
kind  of  being  is  conceived  as  a  product  of  modifica- 
tions wrought  by  insensible  gradations  on  a  pre- 
existing kind  of  being:'  to  which  we  will  only  add, 
that  the  physical  forces  expending  themselves  in  bring- 
ing about  any  particular  collocation  manifest  them- 
selves anew  in  the  properties  which  this  displays. 
Qmnia  mutantur :  nihil  intent.  As  Dumas2  has  said, 
there  is  an  c  eternal  round  in  which  death  is  quickened 
and  Life  appears,  but  in  which  matter  merely  changes 
its  place  and  form.' 

1  Appendix  to  '  Principles  of  Biology.' 

2  'Chemical   and   Physiological  Balance  of  Organic  Nature,'   1844 
(Translation),  p.  48. 


CHAPTER    III. 

NATURE    OF    ORGANIZABLE    MATERIALS   AND    OF    LOWEST 
LIVING   THINGS. 

No  real  distinction  between  Organic  and  Inorganic  matter.  Artificial 
Production  of  Organic  Compounds.  Organizable  matter.  Its  con- 
stitution and  Properties.  Belongs  to  colloidal  division  of  matter. 
Professor  Graham's  views  on  colloids.  Original  Evolution  of  Organic 
Matter  on  our  Globe.  Primordial  Evolution  of  Living  Things. 
Probable  nature  of  these.  The  factors  being  a  plastic  material 
and  ethereal  undulations.  Conversion  of  insensible  into  sensible 
motion.  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer's  explanations.  Important  nature 
of  these.  Constructive  functions  of  Plants.  Continual  conversion 
of  non-living  into  Living  Matter  in  processes  of  Growth. 

Views  of  Life  to  be  tested  by  nature  of  simplest  living  things.  Illustra- 
tions of  physical  theory.  Death  in  higher  Animals.  Different  de- 
grees of '  Individuation.'  Death  in  lower  Organisms. 

Lowest  present  Living  Things.  A  third  Organic  Kingdom,  Protista, 
intermediate  between  Plants  and  Animals.  Nature  of  its  simplest 
Forms.  The  Protoplasm  Theory.  No  Absolute  Commencement 
of  Life. 

BEFORE  Wohler  announced  to  the  scientific  world 
that  he  had  succeeded  in  building  up  an  organic 
compound  in  his  laboratory  with  the  aid  of  no  more 
mysterious  agencies  than  usually  lie  at  the  chemist's 
disposal,  and  before  the  labours  of  other  distinguished 
chemists  had  been  crowned  with  a  like  success,  there 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  8 1 

was  more  reason  than  there  is  at  present  for  the  belief 
that  the  forces  in  living  things  are  altogether  peculiar, 
because  it  appeared  that  certain  compounds  of  carbon 
with  other  elements,  known  as  organic  substances,  were 
capable  of  being  produced  only  within  these  laboratories 
of  nature.  A  department  of  Inorganic  chemistry  has 
hitherto  existed,  separated  quite  definitely  from  another 
known  as  that  of  Organic  chemistry.  In  the  former 
were  included  all  those  elements  and  their  compounds 
which  were  naturally  met  with  amongst,  and  which 
made  up  the  not-living  constituents  of  our  globe, 
whilst  under  the  latter  department  were  ranged  those 
compounds  and  their  derivatives  which  were  sup- 
posed to  exist  only  in  plants  and  animals.  The 
so-called  organic  compounds  were  for  a  long  time 
regarded  as  altogether  peculiar ;  not  as  regards  com- 
position— for  they  were  known  to  be  composed  of 
precisely  the  same  elements  as  were  most  abundant 
in  the  inorganic  world — but  rather  in  point  of 
origin.  They  were  the  products  only  of  living  things  : 
had  been  produced  under  the  influence  of  c  vital'  forces. 
The  action  of  physical  forces  in  the  world  without  was 
deemed  inadequate  to  give  rise  to  such  combinations, 
and  therefore  they  were  separated  by  a  hard  and  fast 
line  from  all  other  compounds  with  which  the  chemist 
manipulated.  Thus  the  popular  belief  of  the  time 
concerning  Life  was  fostered;  and  an  argument  for 
the  special  and  peculiar  nature  of  the  c  vital  forces,' 
could,  at  least,  be  based  on  the  supposed  fact  that 


82  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

living  things  did  produce  substances — were  in  fact 
almost  entirely  built  up  of  material  combinations — 
which  could  not  be  evolved  by  the  agency  of  mere 
physical  forces,  either  in  the  grand  laboratory  of 
nature,  or  under  the  hands  of  the  chemist.  But  now 
all  this  has  changed.  Chemists  have  already  succeeded 
in  building  up  some  hundreds  of  such  compounds.,  and, 
as  each  month  passes  by,  the  list  is  swelled  by  fresh 
conquests.  The  speciality  then  of  these  compounds 
has  passed  away;  the  difference  between  Organic  and 
Inorganic  chemistry  is  fast  vanishing — has,  in  fact, 
well-nigh  vanished.  At  all  events,  these  names  can  no 
longer  be  retained  as  definite  marks;  they  have  lost 
their  significance,  and  if  it  be  desirable  still  to  partition 
off  the  great  department  of  chemical  compounds  formerly 
represented  by  the  word  c  organic/  it  must  be  done  by 
fixing  upon  some  really  common  and  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  the  members  of  the  group,  and  em- 
bodying this  in  some  new  class  name  or  phrase  under 
which  they  can  be  ranged.  Numerous  suggestions 
have  been  made,  but  none  of  them  seems  so  good  as 
that  of  Kekule.  All  the  compounds  named  c  organic5 
invariably  contained  carbon  as  a  constituent,  and  with 
the  exception  of  at  most  three  or  four,  all  the  com- 
pounds of  carbon  were  formerly  placed  under  this  cate- 
gory, so  that  when  Kekule  not  Jong  since  brought  out  a 
work  \  c  On  the  Chemistry  of  Carbon  Compounds,'  its 

1  '  Lehrbuch  der  Organischen  Chemie,  oder  der  Chemie  den  Kohlen- 
stoffverbindungen,'  1861,  in  which  this  subject  is  discussed  at  pp.  8-n. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  83 

scope  was  found  to  be  as  nearly  as  possible  what  it 
would  have  been  had  it  appeared  solely  under  the  old 
name  of  c  Organic  Chemistry.' 

Thus  the  Matter  of  living  things,  the  combinations 
which  they  are  capable  of  producing,  have  no  distin- 
guishing peculiarity — they  can  be  built  up  by  the  che- 
mist in  his  laboratory — the  mysterious  agency  of  Life  is 
now  no  longer  all  essential.  This  knowledge  is  a 
great  gain  to  science,  and  it  harmonizes  well  with 
our  conclusion  in  the  last  chapter,  that  there  is  no 
evidence  whatever  for  a  belief  in  the  existence  of 
a  peculiar  c  vital  force ' — a  something  independent  of 
matter,  and  not  convertible  with  the  ordinary  physical 
forces. 

It  will  now  be  necessary  for  us  to  furnish  some 
explanations  as  to  the  nature  and  composition  of 
organizable  matter  in  general- — of  those  substances  in 
fact  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  living  things 
— and  in  so  doing  we  shall  avail  ourselves  freely  of  the 
writings  of  those  who  are  best  entitled  to  speak  on  the 
subject. 

Organizable  matter  always  contains,  as  principal  and 
fundamental  ingredients,  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
and  nitrogen,  and  to  these  are  often  added  traces  of 
sulphur  and  phosphorus.  The  first  four  elements  are, 
however,  all-essential,  and  it  is  especially  worthy  of 
remark  that  no  less  than  three  of  them  are  gaseous. 
Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  says1: — cWhen  we  remember 

1  •  Principles  of  Biology/  vol.  i.  chap,  i.,  '  Organic  Matter.'     This  and 
G  2 


84  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

how  these  re-distributions  of  Matter  and  Motion  which 
constitute  Evolution,  structural  and  functional,  imply 
motions  in  the  units  that  are  redistributed ;  we  shall 
see  a  probable  meaning  in  the  fact  that  organic  bodies 
which  exhibit  the  phenomena  of  Evolution  in  so  high 
a  degree,  are  mainly  composed  of  ultimate  units  having 
extreme  mobility.'  When  such  mobile  units  enter 
into  various  combinations,  this  initial  property  though 
masked  is  still  potentially  present,  and  must  have  its 
influence  upon  the  molecular  mobility  of  the  com- 
pounds into  which  they  enter.  Hence  Mr.  Spencer 
adds,  c  We  may  infer  some  relation  between  the  gaseous 
form  of  three  out  of  the  four  chief  organic  elements, 
and  that  comparative  readiness  to  undergo  those  changes 
in  the  arrangement  of  parts  which  we  call  development, 
and  those  transformations  of  motion  which  we  call 

function One  more   fact   that   is   here  of  great 

interest  for  us  must  be  set  down.  These  four  elements 
of  which  organisms  are  almost  wholly  composed,  pre- 
sent us  with  certain  extreme  antitheses.  While  be- 
tween two  of  them  we  have  an  unsurpassed  contrast 
in  chemical  activity;  between  one  of  them  and  the 
other  three  we  have  an  unsurpassed  contrast  in  mole- 
cular mobility.  While  carbon  by  successfully  resisting 
fusion  and  volatilization  at  the  highest  temperatures 
that  can  be  produced,  shows  us  a  degree  of  atomic 
cohesion  greater  than  that  of  any  other  known  element, 

the  succeeding  chapters  of  Mr.  Spencer's  work  should  be  read  by  all 
who  wish  fully  to  understand  this  part  of  the  subject. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  85 

hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen  show  the  least  atomic 
cohesion  of  all  elements.  And  while  oxygen  displays, 
alike  in  the  range  and  intensity  of  its  affinities,  a 
chemical  energy  exceeding  that  of  any  other  substance 
(unless  fluorine  be  considered  an  exception),  nitrogen 
displays  the  greatest  chemical  inactivity1.  Now  on 
calling  to  mind  one  of  the  general  truths  arrived  at 
when  analyzing  the  process  of  Evolution  in  general, 
the  probable  significance  of  this  double  difference  will 
be  seen.  It  was  shown  ("First  Principles/3  §  123)  that, 
other  things  equal,  unlike  units  are  more  easily  se- 
parated by  incident  forces  than  like  units  are — that 
an  incident  force  falling  on  units  that  are  but  little 

1  Hence  its  compounds  are  generally  most  unstable.  '  Here  it  will 
be  well  to  note,  as  having  a  bearing  on  what  is  to  follow,  how  charac- 
teristic of  most  nitrogenous  compounds  is  this  special  instability.  In 
all  the  familiar  cases  of  sudden  and  violent  decomposition,  the  change  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  nitrogen.  The  explosion  of  gunpowder  results 
from  the  readiness  with  which  nitrogen  contained  in  the  nitrate  of 
potash  yields  up  the  oxygen  combined  with  it.  The  explosion  of  gun- 
cotton,  which  also  contains  nitric  acid,  is  a  substantially  parallel  pheno- 
menon. The  various  fulminating  salts  are  all  formed  by  the  union  with 
metals  of  a  certain  nitrogenous  acid  called  fulminic  acid ;  which  is  so 
unstable  that  it  cannot  be  obtained  in  a  separate  state.  Explosiveness 
is  a  property  of  nitro-mannite,  and  also  of  nitro-glycerine.  Iodide  of 
nitrogen  detonates  on  the  slightest  touch,  and  often  without  any  assign- 
able cause.  Percussion  produces  detonation  in  sulphide  of  nitrogen. 
And  the  body  which  explodes  with  the  most  tremendous  violence  of  any 
that  is  known,  is  the  chloride  of  nitrogen.  Thus  these  easy  and  rapid 
decompositions,  due  to  the  chemical  indifference  of  nitrogen,  are  charac- 
teristic. When  we  come  hereafter  to  observe  the  part  which  nitrogen 
plays  in  organic  actions,  we  shall  see  the  significance  of  this  extreme 
readiness  shown  by  its  compounds  to  undergo  change.'. — Spencer,  loc. 
cit.  p.  8. 


86  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

dissimilar  does  not  readily  segregate  them,  but  that  it 
readily  segregates  them  if  they  are  widely  dissimilar. 
Thus,  these  two  extreme  contrasts,  the  one  between 
physical  mobilities,  and  the  other  between  chemical 
activities,  fulfil  in  the  highest  degree  a  certain  further 
condition  to  facility  of  differentiation  and  integra- 
tion.' 

Thus,  then,  the  very  fact  that  organizable  matter  is, 
in  the  main,  compounded  of  elements  with  such  dis- 
similar properties,  affords  a  strong  a  priori  presumption 
that  such  organizable  matter  would  be  most  unstable, 
and  most  prone  to  undergo  metamorphic  changes  under 
the  influence  of  even  slight  changes  of  condition — such 
as  might  operate  without  appreciable  result  upon  the 
majority  of  inorganic  substances.  The  properties  of 
the  various  frotem  substances  which  form  the  all- 
essential  constituents  of  living  tissues,  are  found  to 
correspond  entirely  with  these  a  priori  requirements. 
This  can  scarcely  be  better  shown  than  it  has  been 
by  Mr.  Spencer  when  he  wrote 1 : — c  It  is,  however,  the 
nitrogenous  constituents  of  living  tissues  that  dis- 
play most  markedly  those  characteristics  of  which 
we  have  been  tracing  the  growth.  Albumen,  fibrin, 
casein,  and  their  allies  are  bodies  in  which  that 
molecular  mobility  exhibited  by  three  of  their  com- 
ponents in  so  high  a  degree  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. These  substances  are  known  only  in  the  solid 
state  :  that  is  to  say,  when  deprived  of  the  water 

1  Loc.  cit.  p.  12. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  8? 

usually  mixed  with  them,  they  do  not  admit  of 
fusion,  much  less  of  volatilization.  To  which  add, 
that  they  have  not  even  that  molecular  mobility  which 
solution  in  water  implies;  since  though  they  form 
viscid  mixtures  with  water,  they  do  not  dissolve  in  the 
same  perfect  way  as  do  inorganic  compounds.  The 
chemical  characteristics  of  these  substances  are  in- 
stability and  inertness  carried  to  the  extreme It 

should  be  noted,  too,  of  these  bodies,  that  though  they 
exhibit  in  the  lowest  degree  that  kind  of  molecular 
mobility  which  implies  facile  vibrations  of  the  atoms 
as  wholes,  they  exhibit  in  a  high  degree  that  kind  of 
molecular  mobility  resulting  in  isomerism,  which  im- 
plies permanent  changes  in  the  positions  of  adjacent 
atoms  with  respect  to  each  other.  Each  of  them  has 
a  soluble  and  insoluble  form.  In  some  cases  there  are 
indications  of  more  than  two  such  forms.  And  it 
appears  that  their  metamorphoses  take  place  under  very 
slight  changes  of  conditions In  these  most  un- 
stable and  inert  organic  compounds,  we  find  that  the 
atomic  complexity  reaches  a  maximum :  not  only  since 
the  four  chief  organic  elements  are  here  united  with 
small  proportions  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  but  also 
since  they  are  united  in  high  multiples.  The  peculiarity 
which  we  found  characterized  even  binary  compounds 
of  the  organic  elements,  that  their  atoms  are  formed 
not  of  single  equivalents  of  each  component,  but  of 
two,  three,  four,  and  more  equivalents,  is  carried  to 
the  greatest  extreme  in  these  compounds  that  take  the 


88  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

leading  part  in  organic  actions.  According  to  Mulder, 
the  formula  of  albumen  is  10  (C40  H31  N5  O12)  -f-  S2P. 
That  is  to  say,  with  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus  there 
are  united  ten  equivalents  of  a  compound  atom — con- 
taining forty  atoms  of  carbon,  thirty-one  of  hydrogen, 
five  of  nitrogen,  and  twelve  of  oxygen :  the  atom 
being  thus  made  up  of  nearly  nine  hundred  ultimate 
atoms.' 

These  complex  nitrogenous  compounds,  to  the  pro- 
perties of  which  we  have  just  been  alluding,  belong  to 
the  class  of  bodies  named  colloids  by  Professor  Graham. 
They  all  have  an  extremely  low  diffusive  power  when 
in  solution,  and  on  this  account  they  have  been  sepa- 
rated from  the  crystalloids^  or  kinds  of  matter  which 
tend  to  crystallize,  and  also  undergo  diffusion  much 
more  rapidly.  Gelatine  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of 
this  colloidal  condition  of  matter.  A  most  radical  dis- 
tinction is  presumed  to  exist  between  crystalloids  and 
colloids,  in  regard  to  their  intimate  molecular  con- 
stitution. Professor  Graham  says1: — 'Every  physical 
and  chemical  property  is  characteristically  modified  in 
each  class.  They  appear  like  different  worlds  of  matter, 
and  give  occasion  to  a  corresponding  division  of  chemical 
science.  The  distinction  between  these  kinds  of  matter 
is  that  subsisting  between  the  material  of  a  mineral, 
and  the  material  of  an  organized  mass.'  Referring  to 
the  colloidal  class  of  substances,  Professor  Graham  also 

1  'Phil.  Trans.'  1861,  p.  220. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  89 

says1: — c  Among  the  latter  are  hydrated  silicic  acid, 
hydrated  alumina,  and  other  metallic  peroxides  of  the 
aluminous  class,  when  they  exist  in  the  soluble  form  j 
with  starch,  dextrine  and  the  gums,  caramel,  taurin, 
albumen,  gelatine,  vegetable  and  animal  extractive 
matter.  Low  diffusibility  is  not  the  only  property 
which  the  bodies  last  enumerated  possess  in  common. 
They  are  distinguished  by  the  gelatinous  character  of 
their  hydrates.  Although  often  largely  soluble  in  water, 
they  are  held  in  solution  by  a  most  feeble  force.  They 
appear  singularly  inert  in  the  character  of  acids  and 
bases,  and  in  all  the  ordinary  chemical  relations.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  their  peculiar  physical  aggregation, 
with  the  chemical  indifference  referred  to,  appears  to 
be  required  in  substances  that  can  intervene  in  the 
organic  processes  of  life.  The  plastic  elements  of  the 
animal  body  are  found  in  this  class.'  These  compounds 
are  so  all-important  in  living  organisms,  both  from 
a  structural  and  from  a  functional  point  of  view,  that 
it  is  most  desirable  to  learn  as  much  as  we  can  con- 
cerning their  properties  as  mere  material  aggregates 
— i.  e.  when  they  exist  alone  and  not  as  constituents 
of  living  bodies.  We  find  that  they  themselves  exhibit 
a  constant  tendency  to  change  in  response  to  the  most 
delicate  impressions,  after  a  fashion  which  is  suggestive, 
at  least,  of  the  more  complex  though  still  comparatively 
simple  action  and  interaction  taking  place  between  one 
of  the  lowest  kinds  of  Amoebae  and  its  environment. 

1  'Phil.  Trans.'  1861,  p.  183, 


90  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

This  tendency  we  must  attribute  to  the  large  size  and 
complexity  of  the  colloidal  molecules1.  Professor 
Graham  says  on  this  subject: — c  Another  and  eminently 
characteristic  quality  of  colloids  is  their  mutability. 
Their  existence  is  a  continued  metastasis.  A  colloid 
may  be  compared  in  this  respect  to  water  while  existing 
liquid  at  a  temperature  under  its  usual  freezing  point, 
or  to  a  supersaturated  saline  solution The  solu- 
tion of  hydrated  silicic  acid,  for  instance,  is  easily 
obtained  in  a  state  of  purity,  but  it  cannot  be  pre- 
served. It  may  remain  fluid  for  days  or  weeks  in 
a  sealed  tube,  but  it  is  sure  to  gelatinize  and  become 
insoluble  at  last.  Nor  does  the  change  of  this  colloid 
appear  to  stop  at  that  point.  For  the  mineral  forms 
of  silicic  acid  deposited  from  water,  such  as  flint,  are 

1  '  Applying  to  atoms  the  mechanical  law  which  holds  of  masses,  that 
since  inertia  and  gravity  increase  as  the  cubes  of  dimensions,  while 
cohesion  increases  as  their  squares,  the  self-sustaining  power  of  a  body 
becomes  relatively  smaller  as  its  bulk  becomes  greater;  it  might  be 
argued  that  these  large  aggregate  atoms  which  constitute  organic  sub- 
stance, are  mechanically  weak — are  less  able  than  simpler  atoms  to 
bear,  without  alteration,  the  forces  falling  on  them.  That  very  massive- 
ness  which  renders  them  less  mobile,  enables  the  physical  forces  acting 
on  them  more  readily  to  change  the  relative  positions  of  their  com- 
ponent atoms  ;  and  so  to  produce  what  we  know  as  rearrangements  and 
decompositions.'  (Spencer,  loc.  cit.  p.  14.)  Professor  Graham  also 
says  : — '  It  is  difficult  to  avoid  associating  the  inertness  of  colloids  with 
their  high  equivalents,  particularly  where  the  high  number  appears  to 
be  attained  by  the  repetition  of  a  smaller  number.  The  inquiry  suggests 
itself  whether  the  colloid  molecule  may  not  be  constituted  by  the  group- 
ing together  of  a  number  of  smaller  crystalloid  molecules,  and  whether 
the  basis  of  colloidality  may  not  really  be  this  composite  character  of 
the  molecule.'  (Loc.  cit.  p.  221.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  91 

often  found  to  have  passed,  during  the  geological  ages 
of  their  existence,  from  the  vitreous  or  colloidal  into 
the  crystalline  condition1.  The  colloidal  is,  in  fact, 
a  dynamical  state  of  matter ;  the  crystalloid  being  the 
statical  condition.  The  colloid  possesses  ENERGIA. 
It  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  probable  primary  source  of  the 
force  appearing  in  the  phenomena  of  vitality.  To  the 
gradual  manner  in  which  colloidal  changes  take  place 
(for  they  always  demand  time  as  an  element),  may  the 
characteristic  protraction  of  chemico-organic  changes 
also  be  referred/  Thus,  then,  we  seem  to  have  found 
materials  which  are  modifiable  and  plastic  enough  to 
enter  into  the  composition  of  living  things  2. 

But,  let  us  now  glance  at  the  theories  and  require- 
ments of  those  who  seek  to  account  for  the  first  appear- 
ance of  Organisms. 

To  all  those  who  are  firm  believers  in  the  Evolution 

1  Even  a  '  colloid  holding  so  high  a  place  in  its  class  as  albumen ' 
may  be  met  with  in  the  opposite  or  crystalline  condition.     Professor 
Graham  says  : — '  In  the  so-called  blood-crystals  of  Funke,  a  soft  and 
gelatinous  albumenoid  body  is  seen  to  assume  a  crystalline  contour. 
Can  any  facts  more  strikingly  illustrate  the  maxim  that  in  nature  there 
are   no   abrupt    transitions,  and   that   distinctions   of  class   are   never 
absolute  ? ' 

2  '  While  the  composite  atoms  of  which  organic  tissues  are  built  up 
possess  that  molecular  mobility  fitting  them  for  plastic  purposes,  it 
results  from  the  extreme  molecular  mobilities  of  their  ultimate  consti- 
tuents, that  the  waste  products  of  vital  activity  escape  as  fast  as  they 
are  formed.'     (Spencer,  loc.  cit.  p.  24.)     Vital  actions  entail  decomposi- 
tions, in  which  comparatively  stable   and  simple  combinations   result 
from  the  breaking  up  of  the  more  complex  and  highly  unstable  protein 
compounds.    It  is  necessary  that  these  effete  products  should  be  got 
rid  of. 


92  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

hypothesis,  it  will,  as  Dr.  Child  has  already  said1, 
seem  c  an  almost  irresistible  conclusion  that  there  must 
have  been  a  stage  in  the  development  of  the  universe 
when  the  earliest  forms  of  organic  life  were  evolved 
from  some  special  collocation  of  inorganic  elements  by 
the  continued  operation  of  the  laws  already  in  action.' 
Professor  Haeckel,  indeed,  tells  us  that  the  occurrence 
of  an  original  evolution  of  Life  on  our  globe  chas  at 
present  become  a  logical  postulate  of  scientific  natural 
history?  and,  similarly,  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  though 
c  granting  that  the  formation  of  organic  matter,  and  the 
evolution  of  life  in  its  lowest  forms,  may  go  on  under 
existing  cosmical  conditions,'  believes  it  cmore  likely 
that  the  formation  of  such  matter  and  such  forms  took 
place  at  a  time  when  the  heat  of  the  earth's  surface 
was  falling  through  those  ranges  of  temperature  at 
which  the  higher  organic  compounds  are  unstable.' 
c  Exposed  to  those  innumerable  modifications  of  con- 
ditions,' he  adds,  c  which  the  earth's  surface  afforded, 
here  in  amount  of  light,  there  in  amount  of  heat,  and 
elsewhere  in  the  mineral  quality  of  its  aqueous  medi- 
cine, this  extremely  changeable  substance  must  have 
undergone  now  one,  now  another  of  its  countless  meta- 
morphoses.' 

The  exponents  of  the  Evolution  hypothesis,  in  fact, 
lead  us  to  believe,  that,  prior  to  the  evolution  of  Life 
and  the  appearance  of  living  things  on  our  globe, 
there  must  have  gone  on  a  long  series  of  changes  in 

1  'Essays  on  Physiological  Subjects,'  2nd  edition,  1869,  p.  144. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  93 

the  combinations  and  re-combinations  of  matter  on  its 
surface,  leading  to  the  formation  of  different  kinds  of 
aggregates,  the  molecules  of  which  were  large  and  com- 
plex. Such  molecules,  then,  existing  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion, are  supposed  to  have  been  as  prone  to  undergo 
changes  under  the  modifying  influence  of  incident  forces, 
as  are  those  of  the  more  or  less  similar  compounds 
named  c organic'  in  our  own  day.  Before  the  lowest 
forms  of  Life  could  have  been  evolved,  it  is  presumed 
that  there  must  have  been  gradually  going  on  the  pro- 
gressive elaboration  of  an  c  organizable'  material,  re- 
sulting, perchance,  in  the  production  of  states  of  matter 
more  or  less  resembling  those  named  protein,  states 
which,  under  the  influence  of  incident  forces,  may  have 
been  thrown  into  phases  of  unstable  equilibrium,  slowly 
and  gradually  resulting  in  new  combinations  present- 
ing such  lowest  modes  of  vital  manifestation  as  present 
themselves  in  the  minute  and  simple  jelly-specks  con- 
stituting the  Protamxbte  of  Professor  Haeckel. 

Modes  of  action  and  reaction  between  such  unstable 
bodies  and  their  environment,  not  wholly  different  from 
those  which  a  colloid  presents,  may  at  last  have  led, 
through  the  most  insensible  gradations,  to  those  alto- 
gether indefinite,  though  successive,  changes  which  con- 
stitute the  vital  phenomena  of  the  lowest  known  forms 
of  Life.  'Construed  in  terms  of  evolution/  says  Mr. 
Spencer,  c  every  kind  of  being  is  conceived  as  a  product 
of  modifications  wrought  by  insensible  gradations  on  a 
pre-existing  kind  of  being  •  and  this  holds  as  fully  of  the 


94  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

supposed  cc  commencement  of  organic  life"  as  of  all 
subsequent  developments  of  organic  life.  It  is  no 
more  needful  to  suppose  an  "  absolute  commencement 
of  organic  life,"  or  a  " first  organism,"  than  it  is  needful 
to  suppose  an  absolute  commencement  of  social  life 
and  a  first  social  organism.3 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  keep  this  last 
consideration  clearly  in  view  in  discussing  the  problem 
of  the  origin  of  Life. 

The  labours  of  the  chemists  who  have  succeeded  in 
building  up  organic  compounds  in  their  laboratories 
now  come  to  our  aid.  They  throw  even  more  than 
a  faint  glimmer  of  light  upon  the  possibilities  to  which 
we  have  just  been  alluding,  since,  as  Mr.  Spencer  says, 
c  Organic  matters  are  produced  in  the  laboratory  by 
what  we  may  literally  call  artificial  evolution?  This 
opinion  he  explains  in  the  following  passage,  which  we 
cannot  forbear  quoting,  notwithstanding  its  apparent 
technicality.  c  Chemists  find  themselves  unable  to  form,' 
he  says,  c  these  complex  combinations  directly  from 
their  elements;  but  they  succeed  in  forming  them  in- 
directly, by  successive  modifications  of  simpler  com- 
binations. In  some  binary  compound,  one  element  of 
which  is  present  in  several  equivalents,  a  change  is 
made  by  substituting  for  one  of  these  equivalents  an 
equivalent  of  some  other  element;  so  producing  a 
ternary  compound.  Then  another  of  the  equivalents 
is  replaced,  and  so  on.  For  instance,  beginning  with 
ammonia,  NH3,  a  higher  form  is  obtained  by  replacing 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  95 

one  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen  by  an  atom  of  methyl,  so 
producing  methyl-amine,  N(CH3)H2;  and  then  under 
the  further  action  of  methyl,  ending  in  a  further  substi- 
tution, there  is  reached  the  still  more  compound  sub- 
stance dimethyl-amine,  N(CH3)(CH3)H.  And  in  this 
manner  highly  complex  substances  are  eventually  built 
up.  Another  characteristic  of  their  method  is  no  less 
significant.  Two  complex  compounds  are  employed  to 
generate,  by  their  action  upon  one  another,  a  compound 
of  still  greater  complexity;  different  heterogeneous 
molecules  of  one  stage,  become  parents  of  a  molecule 
a  stage  higher  in  heterogeneity.  Thus  having  built  up 
acetic  acid  out  of  its  elements,  and  having  by  the 
process  of  substitution  described  above  changed  the 
acetic  acid  into  propionic  acid,  and  propionic  into 

butyric,  of  which  the  formula  is  iC^S^li?^H^ 

(       ^u  (tiV)       } 
this   complex   compound   by   operating  upon    another 

complex  compound,  such  as  the  dimethyl-amine  named 
above,  generates  one  of  still  greater  complexity,  butyrate 

of  dimethyl-amine  |C  ^^£Q$*\  N(CH3)  (CH8)H. 

See  then  the  remarkable  parallelism.  The  progress 
towards  higher  types  of  organic  molecules  is  effected 
by  modifications  upon  modifications;  as  throughout 
Evolution  in  general.  Each  of  these  modifications  is 
a  change  of  the  molecule  into  equilibrium  with  its 
environment — an  adaptation,  as  it  were,  to  new  sur- 
rounding conditions  to  which  it  is  subjected ;  as  through- 
out Evolution  in  general.  Larger,  or  more  integrated, 


96  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

aggregates  (for  compound  molecules  are  such)  are  suc- 
cessively generated ,  as  throughout  Evolution  in  general. 
More  complex  or  heterogeneous  aggregates  are  so  made 
to  arise,  one  out  of  another;  as  throughout  Evolution 
in  general.  .  .  .  And  it  is  by  the  action  of  the  suc- 
cessively higher  forms  on  one  another,  joined  with  the 
action  of  environing  conditions,  that  the  highest  forms 
are  reached ;  as  throughout  Evolution  in  general 1. 

If,  however,  we  may  suppose  that  by  a  process  of 
Evolution,  under  the  influence  of  natural  forces,  any 
such  complex  and  unstable  bodies  as  those  to  which 
we  have  been  referring  could  have  come  into  being  in 
remote  periods  of  the  Earth's  history,  then  scarcely  any 
conceivable  limit  could  be  placed  upon  the  variations 
which  might  still  result  under  the  continued  play  of 
incident  physical  forces.  In  the  first  place,  most  of 
these  compounds  whose  molecules  are  very  complex, 
are  found  to  be  capable  of  existing  under  many  dif- 
ferent isomeric  modifications.  Protein,  for  instance, 
according  to  Prof.  Frankland,  is  capable  of  existing 
under  probably  at  least  a  thousand  isomeric  forms ;  and 
this  is  the  substance  which,  in  one  state  or  another, 
enters  so  largely  into  the  fabric  of  living  things,  as  to 
be,  above  all  else,  the  organizable  material.  But  even 
this  is  not  all ;  there  are  chemical  possibilities  more 
favourable  still  for  the  origination  and  developmental 
variation  of  living  things.  c  There  are  facts,'  Mr. 

1  Appendix  to  '  Principles  of  Biology '  (published  separately),  p.  482. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  97 

Herbert  Spencer  says ',  c  warranting  the  belief  that 
though  these  multitudinous  isomeric  forms  of  protein 
will  not  unite  directly  with  one  another,  yet  they  admit 
of  being  linked  together  with  other  elements  with 
which  they  combine.  And  it  is  very  significant  that 
there  are  habitually  present  two  other  elements,  sulphur 
and  phosphorus,  which  have  quite  special  powers  of 
holding  together  many  equivalents — the  one  being  pent- 
atomic  and  the  other  hexatomic.  So  that  it  is  a  legi- 
timate supposition  (justified  by  analogy),  that  an  atom 
of  sulphur  may  be  a  bond  of  union  among  half-a-dozen 
isomeric  forms  of  protein ;  and  similarly  with  phos- 
phorus.' 

These  then  are  the  materials,  or  such  as  these,  from 
the  nascent  action  and  interaction  of  which  and  their 
environment  there  may  have  sprung  up  those  modes 
of  change  and  growth  which  may  gradually  win  for 
themselves  the  title  of  c  vital '  phenomena,  and  which, 
becoming  more  pronounced,  may  at  last  suffice  to 
stamp  the  most  infinitesimal  and  variable  forms  which 
present  them  as  Living  Things. 

But,  for  these  changes  and  actions  to  take  place,  the 
continued  action  of  Forces  upon  the  matter  is  needed 
— even  though  this  be  of  the  most -unstable  description, 
and  therefore  the  most  prone  to  assume  new  molecular 
re-arrangements.     There  must  also  be  causes  of  change 
acting  from  without.     Have  we  not  s?en  that  the  phe- 
nomena taking  place  in  living  things,  all  essentially 
1  Loc.  cit.  p.  486. 
H 


9  8  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIF£. 

vital  characteristics,  may  be  described  as  c  the  continuous 
adaptation  of  Internal  to  external  relations  ?'  This  is  the 
essence  of  Life  in  its  dynamical  aspect.  The  causes 
of  change  are,  however,  omnipresent  j  and  the  most 
potent  of  them  seem  to  be  those  rays  of  Heat  and  Light 
which  are  transmitted  to  us  from  our  great  central 
luminary  in  the  form  of  molecular  motions — by  means 
of  subtle  impacts  and  wave-like  undulations  in  the 
intervening  realms  of  ether-space.  These  are  the  best 
known,  and  possibly  the  most  influential  of  the  forces 
which,  emanating  from  the  centre  of  our  solar  system, 
spirit-like,  work  their  vivifying  influence  by  producing 
such  material  combinations  as  are  capable  of  mani- 
festing the  phenomena  of  Life. 

The  question  how  such  ethereal  undulations  are 
capable  of  bringing  about  the  gradually  more  complex 
molecular  re-arrangements  by  which  an  organizable 
material  has  been  supposed  to  be  producible ;  and  how 
in  the  already  existing  living  thing  they  exert  their 
influence  in  those  processes  of  assimilation  and  growth, 
whereby  not-living  materials  are  continually  being  converted 
Into  living  tissue^  is  one  of  the  deepest  interest — towards 
the  solution  of  which  Mr.  Spencer  has  contributed  some 
most  valuable  suggestions. 

cThe  elements  of  the  problem,'  as  Mr.  Spencer 
says,  care  these: — The  atoms  of  several  ponderable 
matters  exist  in  combination :  those  that  are  com- 
bined having  strong  affinities,  but  having  also  affi- 
nities less  strong  for  some  of  the  surrounding  atoms 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  99 

that  are  otherwise  combined.  The  atoms  thus  united, 
and  thus  mixed  among  others  with  which  they  are 
capable  of  uniting,  are  exposed  to  the  undulations  of 
a  medium  that  is  relatively  so  rare  as  to  seem  im- 
ponderable. These  undulations  are  of  numerous  kinds  : 
they  differ  greatly  in  their  lengths,  or  in  the  frequency 
with  which  they  recur  at  any  given  point.  And  under 
the  influence  of  undulations  of  a  certain  frequency, 
some  of  these  atoms  are  transferred  from  atoms  for 
which  they  have  a  stronger  affinity,  to  atoms  for  which 
they  have  a  weaker  affinity.  That  is  to  say,  particular 
orders  of  waves  of  a  relatively  imponderable>A  matter, 
remove  particular  atoms  of  ponderable  matt eiv>  from* 
their  attachments,  and  carry  them  within  reach  of  other 

attachments Now  the  discoveries  of  Bunsen  and 

Kirchoff  respecting  the  absorption  of  particular  lumi- 
niferous  undulations  by  the  vapours  of  particular  sub- 
stances, joined  with  Professor  Tyndall's  discoveries 
respecting  the  absorption  of  heat  by  gases,  show  very 
clearly  that  the  atoms  of  each  substance  have  a  rate  of 
vibration  in  harmony  with  ethereal  waves  of  a  certain 
length,  or  rapidity  of  recurrence.  Every  special  kind 
of  atom  can  be  made  to  oscillate  by  a  special  order  of 
ethereal  waves,  which  are  absorbed  in  producing  its 
oscillations  •  and  can  by  its  oscillations  generate  this 
same  order  of  ethereal  waves.  Whence  it  appears  that 
immense  as  is  the  difference  in  density  between  ether 
and  ponderable  matter,  the  waves  of  the  one  can  set 
the  atoms  of  the  other  in  motion,  when  the  successive 

H  2 


100  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

impacts  of  the  waves  are  so  timed  as  to  correspond 
with  the  atoms.  The  effects  of  the  waves  are,  in  such 
case,  cumulative;  and  each  atom  gradually  acquires 
a  momentum  made  up  of  countless  infinitesimal  mo- 
menta.3 Mr.  Spencer  then  points  out  that  the  elements 
of  a  chemically-compounded  atom  (or  c  molecule/  as  it 
is  usually  termed  by  chemists),  being  still  free  to  move 
within  certain  limits,  we  must  suppose  them  to  remain 
severally  capable  of  vibrating  in  unison  with  the  same 
kinds  of  ethereal  waves,  as  were  capable  of  moving 
them  when  they  were  in  their  uncombined  condition. 
The  component  atoms,  therefore,  retain  their  original 
rates  of  oscillation,  modified  only  as  they  may  be  by 
their  mutual  influence  upon  one  another  j  whilst  the 
compound  atom  or  molecule  will  have  a  capacity  of 
oscillating  determined  by  the  attributes  of  its  con- 
stituent atoms.  Taking  the  case  of  binary  molecules 
as  an  example,  it  becomes  evident  that  if  the  members 
of  such  molecules  differ  from  one  another  considerably, 
they  are  almost  sure  to  be  thrown  into  different  rates 
of  vibration,  and  c  it  is  manifest  that  there  must  arise 
a  tendency  towards  the  dislocation  of  the  two — a 
tendency  which  may  or  may  not  take  effect,  according 
to  the  weakness  or  strength  of  their  union,  and  according 
to  the  presence  or  absence  of  collateral  affinities?  This 
inference  is  perfectly  in  harmony  with  certain  known 
facts.  The  metallic  compounds  which  are  most  de- 
composable under  the  influence  of  the  chemical  rays  of 
light  are  silver,  gold,  mercury,  and  lead,  all  of  which 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  IOI 

have  high  atomic  weights,  whilst  others,  -such  as  so- 
dium and  potassium,  the  atomic  weights  of  which  are 
low,  are  much  less  changeable.  In  binary  compounds 
of  these  several  metals  having  high  atomic  weights 
there  would  be  a  greater  difference  between  the  weights 
of  the  component  elements,  than  if  we  had  to  do  with 
compounds  of  the  small-atomed  metals,  and  so  also, 
it  has  been  found  that  it  is  precisely  those  compounds 
which  consist  of  the  most  dissimilar  elements  that  are 
the  most  decomposable.  But  there  is  also  another 
most  interesting  aspect  of  the  question.  Mr.  Spencer 
says : — c  Strong  confirmation  of  this  view  may  be  drawn 
from  the  decomposing  actions  of  those  longer  ethereal 
waves  which  we  perceive  as  heat.  On  contemplating 
the  whole  series  of  binary  compounds,  we  see  that  the 
elements  which  are  most  remote  in  their  atomic 
weights,  as  hydrogen  and  the  noble  metals,  will  not 
combine  at  all :  their  vibrations  are  so  unlike  that  they 
cannot  keep  together  under  any  conditions  of  tempe- 
rature. If  again  we  look  at  a  smaller  group,  as  the 
metallic  oxides,  we  see  that  whereas  those  metals  that 
have  atoms  nearest  in  weight  to  the  atoms  of  oxygen, 
cannot  be  separated  from  oxygen  by  heat,  even  when 
it  is  joined  by  a  powerful  collateral  affinity;  those 
metals  which  differ  more  widely  from  oxygen  in  their 
atomic  weights,  can  be  de-oxidized  by  carbon  at  high 
temperatures;  and  those  which  differ  from%  it  most 
widely,  combine  with  it  very  reluctantly,  and  yield 
it  up  if  exposed  to  thermal  undulations  of  moderate 


102  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

intensity.  And  here  indeed,  remembering  the  relations 
between  the  atomic  weights  in  the  two  cases,  may  we 
not  suspect  a  close  analogy  between  the  de-oxidation  of 
a  metallic  oxide  by  carbon  under  the  influence  of  the 
longer  ethereal  waves,  and  the  decarbonization  of  car- 
bonic acid l  by  hydrogen  under  the  influence  of  the 
shorter  ethereal  waves  ? ' 

These  discoveries  and  suggestions  are,  we  think,  of 
the  deepest  interest  and  importance.  They  open  up 
possibilities  of  explaining  problems  which  had  hitherto 
seemed  well-nigh  insoluble,  and  that,  too,  in  the  sim- 
plest way,  and  by  the  application  of  strictly  physical 
principles.  Having  to  deal  with  such  mutable  ma- 
terials as  the  unstable  and  big-atomed  colloids,  and 
being  aware  of  the  above-mentioned  explanations  as 
to  the  way  in  which  vibrations  communicated  to  an 
imponderable  ether  may  bring  about  motions  amongst 
the  atoms  of  ponderable  matter,  much  of  the  seem- 
ingly impenetrable  mystery  which  has  hitherto  en- 
shrouded the  nature  of  the  changes  taking  place  in 
living  tissues,  appears  to  be  notably  lessened.  No 
subject  seemed  more  hopelessly  difficult,  and  yet  we 
can  now  only  agree  with  Mr.  Spencer  when  he 
says : — c  These  conceptions  help  us  to  some  dim  no- 
tion of  the  mode  in  which  changes  are  wrought  by 

1  The  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  and  the  fixation  of  carbon  as 
one  of  the  component  elements  of  living  tissue  is  continually  taking 
place  in  the  leaves  of  plants  under  the  stimulus  of  solar  light  and 
its  actinic  rays. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  103 

light  in  the  leaves  of  plants.  Among  the  several 
elements  concerned  there  are  wide  differences  in  mole- 
cular mobility,  and  probably  in  the  rates  of  molecular 
vibration.  Each  is  combined  with  many  of  the  others, 
but  is  capable  of  forming  various  combinations  with 
the  rest.  And  they  are  severally  in  presence  of  a  com- 
plex compound  into  which  they  all  enter,  and  which 
is  ready  to  assimilate  to  itself  the  new  compound 
atoms  that  they  form.  Certain  of  the  ethereal  waves 
falling  on  them  when  thus  arranged,  there  results 
a  detachment  of  some  of  the  combined  atoms  and 
a  union  of  the  rest.  And  the  conclusion  suggested 
is,  that  the  Induced  vibrations  among  the  various  atoms  as 
at  frst  arranged }  are  so  incongruous  as  to  produce  instability  ,• 
and  to  give  collateral  affinities  the  power  to  'work  a  re- 
arrangement ivhich^  though  less  stable  under  other  conditions^ 
is  more  stable  in  the  presence  of  these  particular  undulations? 
Thus  the  way  seems  opening  for  us  to  comprehend 
how,  under  the  mere  influence  of  physical  forces,  not- 
living  combinations  may  be  broken  up  so  as  to  give 
place  to  those  more  subtle  combinations  of  matter 
which  are  only  possible  where  much  incident  force  is 
retained.  We  know  that  the  food  of  plants  consists 
of  not-living  or  so-called  mineral  ingredients,  we 
know  also  that  the  plant  grows,  and  therefore  that 
these  non-living  ingredients  must  be  decomposed 
in  order  to  give  place  to  the  new  living  matter 
which  is  continually  being  produced.  Physical  forces 
and  natural  affinities  are,  therefore,  supposed  to  be  the 


104  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

only  factors  necessary  for  bringing  about  this  marvel- 
lous transformation,  for  enabling  Living  Matter  to 
originate  in  the  tissues  of  plants  by  means  of  a  complex 
rearrangement  of  pre-existing  not-living  elements. 

To  some  these  views  concerning  the  nature  of  Life 
and  vital  manifestations  may  seem  to  be  sadly  insuffi- 
cient, reducing  it,  as  the  theory  does,  to  a  mere  inter- 
play between  a  material  aggregate  of  a  particular  kind 
and  its  environment.  But,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  only  fair  way,  in  judging  of  the  adequacy  of  such 
an  hypothesis,  is  to  consider  how  far  it  is  applicable 
as  an  explanation  of  the  phenomena  exhibited  by  the 
lowest  Living  Things.  The  more  we  look  to  the  higher 
forms  of  Life,  the  more  apt  are  we  to  be  blinded  to 
the  real  and  essential  nature  of  the  phenomena  taking 
place,  owing  to  the  greater  complexity  which  has  arisen 
in  their  various  functions  step  by  step  with  the  struc- 
tural differentiation  of  the  organism  itself.  Never- 
theless, even  from  phenomena  presented  by  some  of 
these  higher  organisms,  evidence  may  be  obtained 
which  is  certainly  more  reconcilable  with  the  con- 
ceptions of  Life  to  which  we  have  just  been  alluding 
than  with  any  other. 

When  seeds  of  wheat,  produced  by  living  plants  in 
times  antecedent  to  the  Pharaohs,  can  remain  in  the 
Egyptian  catacombs,  through  century  after  century — 
displaying  of  course  no  vital  manifestations,  but  never- 
theless retaining  the  potentiality  of  growing  into  per-. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  105 

feet  plants1  whenever  they  may  happen  to  be  brought 
into  contact  with  suitable  external  conditions,  we  must 
presume  that,  either  (i)  during  this  long  lapse  of  cen- 
turies the  'vital  principle'  of  the  plant  has  been 
imprisoned  in  the  most  dreary  and  impenetrable  of 
dungeons,  whither  no  sister  effluences  from  the  general 
c  soul  of  nature '  could  affect  it,  and  whence  escape  was 
impossible;  or  else  (2)  that  the  germ  of  the  future 
possible  living  plant  is  there  only  in  the  form  of  an 
inherited  structure  whose  molecular  complexities  are 
of  such  a  kind  that,  after  moisture  has  restored  mobi- 
lity to  its  atoms,  its  potential  life  may  pass  into  actual 
life,  because  the  ever-recurring  ethereal  pulses  of  motion, 
and  other  changes  in  its  environment,  are  capable  of 
giving  rise  to  a  definite  series  of  simultaneous  and 
successive  changes  in  its  own  structure.  This  series 
of  actions  and  re-actions  —  most  variously  complex 
though  they  may  be — constitute  the  essential  phenomena 
of  Life,  and  the  structure  of  the  organism  or  living 
thing  manifesting  them  is  but  the  material  embodi- 
ment resulting  from  such  actions. 

1  In  connection  with  periods  of  rest  in  Plant  life,  Alex.  Braun  (Re- 
juvenescence in  Nature,  Syd.  Soc.  1853,  p.  200,  et  seq.)  makes  some  very 
interesting  remarks.  We  will  extract  the  following  sentences  only: — 
'  The  formation  of  fixed  oil  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  starch 
in  the  economy  of  cell-life ;  its  appearance,  in  like  manner,  announces 
the  repose  of  age  in  cell-life,  its  disappearance  the  beginning  of  Re- 
juvenescence. We  meet  with  fixed  oil  in  the  cells,  either  mixed  with 
starch,  substituted  for  it,  or  gradually  displacing  it;  its  occurrence  is 
perhaps  still  more  general  than  that  of  starch,  since  it  exists  even  in  the 
Fungi  and  Phycochromiferous  Algae,' 


io6 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


But  such  things  are  not  only  true  concerning  the 
germs  of  plants ;  somewhat  parallel  phenomena  are  pre- 
sented even  by  adult  organisms  in  the  animal  series. 
The  c  Sloths '  of  Spallanzani,  the  Rotifers,  and  the  Free 
Nematoids  or  Anguillules,  certainly  should  be  taken  into 
account  by  those  who  would  wish  to  arrive  at  correct 
conceptions  as  to  Life.  These  animals,  having  com- 
paratively definite  and  complex  organizations,  are  now 


FIG.  i.    Animals  found  in  tufts  of  Moss  and  Lichen. 

a.  Plectus  parietinus,  a  Free  Nematoid. 

b.  Rotifer  vulgaris,  the  common  Wheel  Animalcule. 

c.  Emydium  testudo,  one  of  the  '  Sloths '  of  Spallanzani. 

notorious  for  their  tenacity  of  Life,  their  power  of  re- 
sisting the  most  adverse  external  conditions,  and, 
above  all,  for  their  power  of  resuming  active  vital  mani- 
festations, after  these  have  been  completely  in  abeyance 
for  five,  ten,  fifteen,  or  even  more  than  twenty  years ' . 

1  More  complete  details  concerning  these  properties  may  be  found  in 
a  memoir  on  '  The  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Nematoids,  Parasitic 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  IO/ 

Living  together,  as  they  generally  do,  tenanting  the 
same  tufts  of  moss  or  the  same  patches  of  lichen,  they 
eke  out  their  existence  by  instalments,  instead  of  enjoy- 
ing a  more  or  less  definite  and  continuous  span  of  life. 
And,  during  their  most  extreme  degrees  of  desiccation 
they  certainly  can  have  no  more  title  to  be  looked 
upon  as  living  things  than  can  the  seeds  in  the  cata- 
combs of  Egypt.  Though  not  living,  they  also  retain 
the  potentiality  of  manifesting  Life:  and,  for  each 
alike,  in  order  that  this  potentiality  may  pass  into  an 
actuality,  the  first  requisite  is  water,  with  which  to 
restore  to  them  that  possibility  of  molecular  re-arrange- 
ments under  the  influence  of  incident  forces,  of  which 
the  absence  of  water  had  deprived  them,  and  without 
which  Life,  in  any  real  sense,  is  impossible 1. 

and  Free.'  Philosophical  Transactions,  1866,  p.  613-620.  With  regard 
to  Nematoids  I  have  there  said  that  '  the  remarkable  tenacity  of  Life 
of  which  we  have  been  speaking  is  met  with  only  amongst  the  repre- 
sentatives of  four  land  and  freshwater  genera,  Tylencbus,  Plectus, 
Aphelencbus,  and  Cepbalobus ;  whilst  those  of  all  the  other  genera,  except- 
ing Rhabditis,  marine  as  well  as  land  and  freshwater,  are  rather  remark- 
able for  the  very  opposite  characteristic,  they  being  incapable  of  recovery 
even  after  the  shortest  periods  of  desiccation.'  It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  all  the  Free  Nematoids  exhibited  this  tenacity  of  Life. 

1  Professor  Owen  says  (Monthly  Microscopical  Journal,  May  i,  1869, 
p.  294),  'There  are  organisms  (Vibrio,  Rotifer,  Macrobiotus,  &c.)  which 
we  can  devitalize  and  revitalize — devive  and  revive — many  times.  As 
the  dried  animalcule  manifests  no  phenomenon  suggesting  any  idea 
contributing  to  form  the  complex  one  of  "  life  "  in  my  mind,  I  regard  it 
to  be  as  completely  lifeless  as  is  the  drowned  man  whose  breath  and 

heat  have  gone  and  whose  blood  has  ceased  to  circulate 

The  change  of  work  consequent  on  drying  or  drowning  forthwith 
begins  to  alter  relations  or  "  composition,"  and,  in  time,  to  a  degree 


108  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

But  the  Death  of  organisms  is  even  capable  of  teach- 
ing us  something  as  to  their  life  :  their  mode  of  dying 
is  typical  of  their  mode  of  living.  The  more  highly 
developed  an  organism  has  become,  the  more  has  speci- 
alization been  brought  about  in  the  functions  of  its 
several  parts,  and  (in  almost  the  same  proportion)  the 
more  has  the  all  become  welded  into  a  whole.  The 
greater  the  degree  of  interdependence  existing  between 
the  actions  of  its  several  parts,  the  more  is  the  well- 
being  of  the  entire  organism  interfered  with  by  damage 
occurring  to  any  one  of  these  principal  parts.  Through 
the  intervention,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  nervous 
system  and  the  vascular  system,  this  individuality  of 
the  entire  organism  is  carried  to  the  most  marked 
extent  in  the  highest  vertebrata,  so  that  the  Life  of 
one  of  these  creatures — regarded  as  a  whole,  or  sum 
total  of  phenomena — differs  almost  as  widely  as  it  is 
possible  from  that  of  some  of  the  lowest  animals  on 
the  one  hand,  and  from  that  of  plants  on  the  other. 
Their  mode  of  death  also  is  quite  different.  And  as 
with  Life,  so  is  it  with  Death,  we  are  perhaps  too  apt 
to  form  our  notions  concerning  each  from  what  we  see 
taking  place  in  man  himself  and  in  the  higher  living 
things — many  people  apparently  never  reflect  upon  the 
striking  differences  which  are  presented,  in  this  respect, 
by  the  lowest  animals  as  well  as  by  the  members  of  the 

adverse  to  resumption  of  the  vital  form  of  force,  a  longer  period  being 
needed  for  this  effect  in  the  Rotifer,  a  shorter  one  in  the  Man,  still 
shorter,  it  may  be,  in  the  Amoeba,' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  109 

vegetable  kingdom.  In  man  we  find  a  fully  developed 
and  almost  inconceivably  complex  organism;  in  the 
working  of  which,  as  in  that  of  any  ordinary  but  ex- 
tremely complex  piece  of  machinery,  there  is  seen  to 
be  the  closest  interdependence  between  the  actions  of 
the  several  parts.  Destined  as  a  whole  to  perform 
a  certain  work,  we  may  constantly  see,  for  instance, 
in  the  wool-factories  of  our  manufacturing  districts 
a  piece  of  machinery  in  which  the  sum  total  of  work 
to  be  done  is  parcelled  out  amongst  different  re- 
lated and  interdependent  parts — wheels  of  every  de- 
scription, large  and  small,  plain  and  toothed ;  combs  of 
various  kinds;  rhythmically  acting  knives,  reels  and 
thread  twisters,  all  combine  simultaneously  or  suc- 
cessively to  elaborate  the  woof  out  of  which  our  gar- 
ments are  woven.  The  action  of  some  parts  are 
more  essential,  that  of  others  less  essential  to  the 
action  of  the  machine  as  a  whole.  An  interference 
with  the  revolution  of  some  central  wheel  may  suffice 
instantly  to  interrupt  the  working  of  the  entire  mechan- 
ism, just  as  the  functional  workings  in  the  body  of 
a  highly  organized  vertebrate  animal  may  be  as  sud- 
denly arrested  by  a  puncture  in  a  particular  part  of  its 
nervous  system.  In  both  instances  the  first  result  is 
a  simple  cessation  in  the  action  of  a  complex  machine ; 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  animal — seeing  that  its  body 
has  been  gradually  built  up  in  a  given  manner  under 
the  influence  of  certain  definite  actions  or  functions, 
the  continuance  of  which  is  absolutely  necessary — it 


1 1 0  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

follows  that  when  such  actions  are  arrested  irretrievably, 
the  organism  as  an  individual  whole  must  die,  although 
its  separate  parts  and  anatomical  elements  may  and 
do  perish  much  more  slowly,  after  different  intervals. 
These  perish  simply  by  default — because  the  conditions 
suitable  for  the  continuance  of  their  life  are  no  longer 
forthcoming ;  and  not  because  they  themselves  as  vital 
units  had  received  any  damage  at  the  time  that  the 
organism  as  a  whole  ceased  to  live— when  the  action  of 
the  vital  machine  was  stopped.  Every  anatomical  ele- 
ment of  even  the  highest  animal  may  fairly  be  said  to 
possess  Life  and  a  specific  mode  of  action,  each  after  its 
own  kind ;  only,  the  vital  manifestations  of  the  whole  of 
these  units  are  subordinated  to  the  Life — and,  in  health, 
work  towards  the  well-being — of  the  higher  organism  of 
which  they  form  part.  The  death  of  the  Organism  as 
a  whole,  results  from  the  stoppage  of  its  machinery ; 
but  the  death  of  its  component  parts  subsequently 
follows  as  a  consequence  of  the  cessation  of  those 
more  general  actions  —  under  whose  influence  they 
were  produced,  and  without  whose  existence  they  can 
no  longer  live.  If  the  medulla  oblongata  has  been 
punctured  and  the  heart  has  ceased  to  beat,  there  is 
a  permanent  stoppage  of  this  function,  without  which 
Life,  in  such  a  being  as  a  mammalian  vertebrate, 
is  impossible.  It  consequently  dies.  If  the  blood  no 
longer  circulates,  the  anatomical  elements,  which  are 
absolutely  dependent  upon  this  fluid  for  their  pabulum, 
must  also,  after. a  time,  necessarily  die.  The  individual 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  in 

muscular  and  nervous  elements  may  and  do  still  live 
for  a  time — the  nerve  will  conduct  a  stimulus  under 
which  the  muscle  will  contract;  and  so  is  it,  even 
more  markedly,  with  the  epithelial  cells — those  pos- 
sessing cilia  display  their  characteristic  vital  actions 
long  after  the  organism  considered  as  a  complex  whole 
has  ceased  to  live. 

Now  the  lower  we  descend  in  the  scale  of  living 
things,  the  less  marked  does  the  life  of  the  organism 
as  a  whole  become,  in  contradistinction  to  the  life  of 
its  several  parts.  The  c  tendency  to  individuation '  be- 
comes less  and  less  manifest  in  proportion  as  the  struc- 
tural differentiation  diminishes.  The  more  the  several 
parts  of  an  organism  resemble  one  another,  the  less 
difference  is  there  between  the  functions  discharged 
by  these  several  parts,  and  therefore  the  importance 
is  proportionately  less  to  the  whole  organism  when 
one  of  these  functions  is  interfered  with.  This  is  but 
saying,  in  other  words,  that  the  machinery  of  Life  grows 
less  and  less  complex,  and  that  we  are  gradually  ap- 
proximating more  and  more  to  a  state  of  things  in 
which,  to  employ  the  same  simile,  we  have  a  mere 
aggregate  of  wheels,  a  mere  repetition  of  more  or  less 
similar  parts,  with  progressively  less  of  mutual  inter- 
dependence between  their  several  actions.  Who  has 
not  noticed  the  slowness  with  which  a  serpent  dies, 
how  the  toad  clings  to  Life  ?  Look  at  the  writhing 
segment  of  the  worm  whose  body  has  been  cut  by 
the  gardener's  spade,  or  at  the  green  Nereis  of  the 


1 12  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

rock-pool  whose  body  has  been  accidentally  torn,  and 
let  us  think  of  the  powers  of  repair  possessed  by  each — 
it  is  not  killed,  and  an  attempt  will  be  made  more  or 
less  effectually  to  reproduce  the  lost  parts,  just  as  a 
crystal,  in  its  own  proper  medium  would,  after  injury, 
tend  to  reproduce  its  original  symmetry  of  form.  Look 
again  at  the  little  polyp  of  our  lakes  and  ponds — the 
Hydra,  whose  individual  Life  is  so  dwarfed  in  com- 


FIG.  2.  Hydra  viridis  in  different  stages  of  extension  and  contrac- 
tion, reproducing  gemmiparously — attached  to  roots  of  Duckweed. 
(Roesel.) 

parison  with  the  Life  of  its  several  parts  that  you  may 
cut  it  or  injure  it  to  almost  any  extent,  and  yet  the 
separate  parts  will  still  live  \  It  can,  in  fact,  scarcely 

1  It  has,  moreover,  been  recently  revealed  by  the  experiments  of 
Haeckel  that  a  similar  power  of  reproduction,  previously  unsuspected,  is 
possessed  by  Medusae.  Haeckel  says :  '  My  experiments  proved  that  it 
prevails  to  an  amazing  extent  in  many  medusae,  especially  in  those  be- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  113 

be  said  to  constitute  a  living  whole,  for  the  one  animal 
may  be  divided  into  two,  and  the  two  into  four,  and 
each  part  will  grow  into  an  organism  like  that  of  which 
it  is  a  segment — the  parts  grow  into  wholes,  and  in  the 
place  of  the  one  individual  organism  we  get  four  others 
similar  in  kind.  By  mechanical  injury  or  compression 
we  may  destroy  any  single  part  so  compressed,  but  we 
do  not  affect  the  total  organism,  except  for  a  time  : 
the  lost  part  is  reproduced. 

These  also  are  the  kinds  of  phenomena  and  modes 
of  Life  with  which  we  are  familiar  throughout  the 
Vegetable  Kingdom — nowhere  do  we  meet  with  any- 
thing like  that  same  amount  of  integration  or  indi- 
viduation  which  is  characteristic  of  the  higher  animals. 
Mere  fragments  of  plants  in  the  form  of  buds,  c  cut- 
tings,' or  portions  of  the  root,  separated  from  the  parent 
organism,  are  capable  of  reproducing  plants  similar 
to  those  from  which  they  have  been  derived.  The 
c  tendency  to  individuation'  exists  here  also,  but  even 
in  the  most  perfect  plant  the  accomplished  result  is 
small  indeed,  when  compared  with  what  we  encounter 
amongst  animals.  The  absence  of  a  nervous  system 


longing  to  the  family  Tbaumantiadte  of  Gegenbauer  (Laodicei  of  Agassiz). 
In  several  species  of  this  family  I  could  divide  the  umbrella  into  more 
than  a  hundred  species ;  and  from  each,  provided  it  only  contained 
a  portion  of  the  margin  of  the  umbrella,  grew  in  a  few  days  (from  two 
to  four)  a  complete  small  medusa.  Merely  a  loosened  shred  of  the 
fringe  on  which  the  base  (the  adjoining  piece  of  the  edge  of  the  umbrella) 
remained,  formed  a  medusa  in  a  few  days.' — '  Monograph  of  Monera.' 
Transl.  in  '  Quart.  Journal  of  Micros.  Science,'  April,  1869,  p.  117. 

I 


114  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

however,  combined  with  the  less  perfect  condition 
of  the  vascular  system,  are  sufficient  to  account  for 
this  want  of  integration  in  the  plant,  and  the  great 
amount  of  independence  shown  by  its  individual 
parts. 

Such  are  some  of  the  principal  differences  in  the 
nature  of  the  Life,  or  aggregate  vital  manifestations  of 
the  members  of  the  Animal  and  of  the  Vegetable  King- 
doms: and  great  as  are  the  differences  between  the 
phenomena  of  the  higher  and  of  the  lower  forms  of 
these,  we  may  look  for  even  still  lower  manifestations 
of  Life  in  a  group  of  organisms  whose  characteristics, 
whether  structural  or  functional,  are  so  little  marked 
as  to  make  the  most  philosophic  naturalists  unable  to 
assign  them  a  place  amongst  either  the  one  or  the  other 
of  these  Organic  Kingdoms. 

It  might  have  been  expected,  in  accordance  with  the 
doctrines  of  Evolution,  that  the  lowest  living  things 
would  present  characters  of  the  most  general  descrip- 
tion. They  ought  to  be  simply  living  things,  without 
visible  organization,  and  should  as  yet  present  no 
special  characters  by  virtue  of  which  a  place  might 
be  assigned  to  them  either  in  the  vegetable  or  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  The  older  naturalists  thought 
that  every  living  thing  must  be  either  an  animal 
or  a  plant,  and  they  accordingly  ranged  all  organic 
forms  under  one  or  other  of  these  categories.  But  there 
were  certain  of  them  whose  characteristics  were  so  in- 
definite that  they  could  really  claim  for  themselves  no 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  115 

place  in  either  of  these  kingdoms,  and  they  were  con- 
sequently placed  in  the  one  or  in  the  other  alternately 
as  the  state  of  knowledge  at  the  time  varied,  or  almost 
according  to  the  whim  of  successive  writers.  But  now, 
at  last,  after  this  unseemly  bandying  to  and  fro,  their 
proper  position  is  being  generally  recognized.  The 
merit  of  taking  a  definite  step  as  regards  the  classifica- 
tion of  these  animals  rests  with  Professor  Haeckel,  who 
says1: — CI  have  made  the  attempt  in  my  "General 
Morphology  "  to  throw  some  light  upon  this  systematic 
chaos,  by  placing,  as  a  special  division  between  true 
animals  and  true  plants,  all  those  doubtful  organisms 
of  the  lowest  rank  which  display  no  decided  affinities 
nearer  to  one  side  than  to  the  other,  or  which  possess 
animal  and  vegetable  characters  united  and  mixed  in 
such  a  manner  that,  since  their  discovery,  an  in- 
terminable controversy  about  their  position  in  the 
animal  or  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  continued. 
Manifestly  this  controversy  becomes  reduced  to  the 
smallest  compass  if  the  disputable  and  doubtful  inter- 
mediate forms  are  separated  for  the  present  (though 
only  provisionally)  both  from  the  true  animals  and 
from  the  true  plants,  and  united  in  a  special  organic 
"kingdom."  Thereby  we  obtain  the  advantage  of 
being  able  to  distinguish  both  true  animals  and  true 
plants  by  a  clear  and  sharp  definition,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  special  proportion  of  attention  is  attracted 

1  '  Monograph  of  Monera.'    Translation  in   '  Quarterly  Journal  of 
Microscopical  Science,'  July,  1869,  p.  230. 

I  2, 


Il6  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

to  the  very  low  organisms  hitherto  so  much  neglected, 
and  yet  so  extremely  important.  I  have  called  this 
boundary  kingdom  intermediate  between  the  animal 
and  the  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  connecting  both, 
the  PROTISTA  i.'  All  the  members  of  this  king- 
dom multiply  by  an  exclusively  non-sexual  method 
of  reproduction.  It  should  be  understood,  however, 
that  in  proposing  such  a  classification  Prof.  Haeckel 
by  no  means  wishes  to  establish  an  absolute  wall 
of  separation  between  these  three  organic  kingdoms. 
He  is  much  more  disposed  to  believe  that  animals 
as  well  as  plants  have  gradually  arisen  out  of  mo- 
difications which  have  taken  place  in  the  simplest 
Protista.  This  primordial  organic  kingdom  he  divides 
into  ten  groups,  in  the  lowest  of  which,  named 
Monera2,  are  included  such  mere  naked,  non-nucle- 
ated jelly-specks  as  those  belonging  to  the  genera 

1  rb  irpduTtaTov,  the  first  of  all,  primordial.     'Gen.  Morph.'  vol.  i. 
p.  203,  and  vol.  ii.  p.  xx.  and  p.  403.    Elsewhere  he  says : — '  The  question 
which  has  been  so  often  debated  during  the  last  twenty  years  as  to 
a  boundary  between  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms  will  be 
decided  by  the  Monera,  or,  more  correctly,  they  will  prove  that  a  perfect 
separation  of  both   kingdoms,  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  usually 
attempted,  is   impossible.     The   Monera  are  apparently  such  peculiar 
organisms  that  they  can  be  classed  with  equal  propriety,  or  rather  with 
equal  arbitrariness,  as  primitive  animals  or  as  primitive  plants.     They 
may  just  as  well  be  regarded  as  the  first  beginnings  of  animal  as  of 
vegetable  organization.    But  as  no  one  mark  of  distinction  inclines  them 
more  to  one  side  than  to  the  other,  it  seems  most  correct  at  present 
to  class  them  as  intermediate  between  true  animals  and  true  plants.' 
.('Journal  of  Micros.  Science,'  Jan.  1869,  p.  29.) 

2  Name  from  ftof^s,  simple. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  117 

Protamoeba  and  Protogenes,  to  which  we  shall  have  occa- 
sion again  to  allude.  The  other  members  of  this 
primitive  kingdom  being  comprised  under  one  or  other 
of  the  following  groups : — Flagellata,  Labyrinthulea, 
Diatomea,  Phycochromacese,  Fungi1,  Myxomycetes,  Proto- 
plasta2,  EToctilucsD,  and  Rhizopoda. 

The  homogeneous  and  shapeless  masses  of  plasma 
constituting  the  group  Monera  are  supposed  by  Prof. 
Haeckel  to  have  come  into  being  by  a  process 
of  equivocal  or  '  spontaneous '  generation,  and  these 
are  regarded  by  him  as  the  primordial  living  things3. 
We  think,  however— for  reasons  which  will  subse- 
quently appear — that,  side  by  side  with  these,  should 
stand  Bacteria,  Torul^  and  other  equally  primordial 
forms  not  alluded  to  by  Prof.  Haeckel.  We  merely 
mention  this  conclusion  at  which  we  have  arrived, 
but  will  not  enlarge  upon  it  at  present. 

It  will  be  useful  for  us  to  see,  however,  what  Prof. 
Haeckel  has  to  say  concerning  the  members  of  his  group 
Monera,  including  as  it  does  the  two  genera  above 
mentioned,  as  well  as  others  (such  as  Protomyxa  and 
Vampyrella]  the  species  of  which  are  no  longer  naked, 

1  In  justification  of  the  removal  of  these  from  the  Vegetable  Kingdom 
Haeckel  says : — '  The  whole  method  of  nourishment  and  assimilation  of 
the  fungi,  in  connection  with  many  other  characters  (especially  the  total 
absence  of  chlorophyll),  remove  them  so  far  from  the  true  plants  that 
the  earlier  botanists  long  since  wished  to  establish  for  the  fungi  a  special 
organic  kingdom.' 

2  In  this  group  are  included  all  the  higher  nucleated  Amoeba. 

3  Loc.  cit.  p.  330. 


Il8  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

but  are  bounded  by  an  outer  membrane1.  He  says2: 
— CI  have  called  those  forms  of  life  standing  at  the 
lowest  grade  of  organization  Monera.  Their  whole 
body,  in  a  fully  developed  and  freely  moving  con- 
dition, consists  of  an  entirely  homogeneous  and  struc- 
tureless substance,  a  living  particle  of  albumen3, 
capable  of  nourishment  and  reproduction.  These 
simplest  and  most  imperfect  of  all  organisms  are, 
in  many  respects,  of  the  highest  interest.  For  the 
albumen- like  organic  matter  meets  us  here  as  the  material 
substratum  of  all  life  phenomena^  apparently  not  only 
under  the  simplest  form  as  yet  actually  observed, 
but  also  under  the  simplest  form  which  can  well  be 
imagined.  Simpler  and  more  incomplete  organisms 
than  the  Monera  cannot  be  conceived.  .  .  .  Indeed,  the 
whole  body  of  the  Monera,  however  strange  this  may 
sound,  represents  nothing  more  than  a  single,  thoroughly 
homogeneous  particle  of  albumen,  in  a  firmly  adhesive 

1  Professor  Haeckel  proposes  that  the  word  '  Sarcode,'  introduced  by 
Dujardin,  should  be  applied  to  the  free  protoplasm  which  exists  without 
a  covering  or  limiting  membrane,  only  with  the  distinct  understanding 
that  such  free  protoplasm  differs  in  no  essential  respect  from  that  which 
is   encapsuled,  whether  it  is  marked  off  from  surrounding  things  by 
a  mere  limiting  membrane,  or  whether  it  is  enclosed  within  a  definite 
cell-wall. 

2  Translation  in  'Journal  of  Micros.  Science,'  Jan.  1869,  p.  28. 

3  '  In  all  chemical  and  physical  respects,'  Prof.  Haeckel  writes  else- 
where, '  this  substance  shows  the  qualities  of  a  consistent  carbonaceous 
compound  of  the  group  of  albuminous  substances  (Proteine).     It   is 
identical  with   the   substance  which  as   Plasma  or   Protoplasm  forms 
the  contractile  living  substance  of  all  organic  Plastides,  of  all  cells,  and 
cytodes  of  animals,  protista,  and  plants.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  119 

condition.  The  external  form  is  quite  irregular,  con- 
tinually changing,  globularly  contracted  when  at  rest. 
Our  sharpest  discrimination  can  detect  no  trace  of  an 
internal  structure,  or  of  a  formation  from  dissimilar 
parts.  As  the  homogeneous  albuminous  mass  of  the 
body  of  the  Moner  does  not  even  exhibit  a  differen- 
tiation into  an  inner  nucleus  and  an  outer  plasma, 
and  as,  moreover,  the  whole  body  consists  of  a  homo- 


FIG.  3.     Representatives  of  Haeckel's  group  Monera. 

a.  Most  minute  specks  of  protoplasm  from  fine  surface  mud  of  fresh- 

water ponds,  Hendon.  (  X  800.) 

b.  Prot amoeba    primitiva    (Haeckel).     Two   individuals   resulting   from 

a  recent  fission. 

c.  Vampyrella  pendula  (Cienkowski). 

d.  Amoeba  porrecta  (Max  Schultze).     This  is  really  a  Protamceba. 

e.  Protomyxa  aurantiaca  (Haeckel)  developed  into  a  '  plasmodium/  either 

from  the  simple  increase  of  a  single  amreba-like  germ  or  by  the 
union  of  several  originally  distinct  individuals.  A  devoured  Isthmia 
and  a  Navicula  are  visible  in  the  homogeneous  parenchyma  of  the 
sarcode  ;  also  numerous  vacuoles.  (6,  c,  d,  and  e  x  220.) 

geneous  plasma,  or  protoplasma,  the   organic   matter 
here  does  not  even  reach  the  importance  of  the  simplest 


120  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

cell.  It  remains  in  the  lowest  imaginable  grade  of 
organic  individuality.'  Professer  Haeckel  afterwards 
says: — cThe  Monera  are  indeed  Protista.  They  are 
neither  animals  nor  plants.  They  are  organisms  of 
the  most  primitive  kind:  among  which  the  distinc- 
tion between  animals  and  plants  does  not  yet  exist. 
But  the  term  " organism"  itself  seems  scarcely  ap- 
plicable to  these  simplest  forms  of  life;  for  in  the 
whole  conception  of  the  "organism"  is  especially 
implied  the  construction  of  the  whole  from  dis- 
similar parts, — from  organs  or  limbs.  At  least,  two 
separate  parts  must  be  united  to  complete  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  body  as  an  organism  in  this  original  sense. 
Every  true  Amceba,  every  true  (i.  e.  nucleus-including) 
animal  and  vegetable  cell,  every  animal-egg,  is,  in  this 
sense,  already  an  elementary  organism,  composed  of 
two  different  organs,  the  inner  nucleus  and  the  outer 
cell-matter  (Plasma  or  Protoplasma) .  Compared  with 
these  last  the  Monera  are  strictly  "  organisms  without 
organs."  Only  in  a  physiological  sense  can  we  still 
call  them  organisms ;  as  individual  portions  of  organic 
matter,  which  fulfil  the  essential  life-functions  of  all 
organisms,  nourishment,  growth,  and  reproduction.  But 
all  these  different  functions  are  not  yet  limited  to  dif- 
ferent parts.  They  are  all,  still,  executed  equally  by 
every  part  of  the  body  V 

1  Prof.  Haeckel  then  continues  : — '  If  the  natural  history  of  the 
Monera  is  already,  on  these  grounds,  of  the  highest  interest  as  well  for 
morphology  as  for  physiology,  this  interest  will  be  still  more  increased 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  121 

One  of  the  most  rudimentary,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  first  member  of  this  group  observed  by  Prof.  Haeckel, 
he  named  Protamceba  primitiva.  cl  observed  it/  he 
says,  c  for  the  first  time  at  Jena,  in  the  summer  of  1863, 
in  water  which  I  had  brought  from  a  small  pond  in  the 
Tautenburg  forest  (opposite  Dornburg,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Saal).  The  bottom  of  this  shallow  little 
pond  is  thickly  covered  with  fallen  decayed  beech- 
leaves,  and  in  the  fine  brown  mud,  among  the  decayed 
leaves,  I  found  the  little  Protamceba.'  It  was  a  minute 
plasma-ball,  perfectly  homogeneous,  rather  more  than 
Y-Q^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  moved  with  extreme 
slowness,  and  also  changed  its  form  as  slowly,  by 
means  of  alternate  protrusions  and  retractions  of  bluntly 
rounded  portions  of  its  body-mass.  The  whole  sub- 
stance of  Protamceba  primttwa  is  absolutely  structureless 
and  homogeneous.  At  one  time  it  will  multiply  itself  by 
a  process  of  fission,  whilst,  at  another  time,  individuals 


by  the  extraordinary  importance  which  these  very  simple  organisms 
possess  for  the  important  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation  or  arche- 
gony.  I  have  shown  in  my  "  General  Morphology "  that  the  accepta- 
tion of  a  genuine  archegony  (once  or  repeated)  has  at  present  become 
a  logical  postulate  of  scientific  natural  history.  Most  naturalists  who  have 
discussed  this  question  rationally  believed  that  they  must  designate 
simple  cells  as  the  simplest  organism  produced  thereby,  from  which 
all  others  developed  themselves.  But  every  true  cell  already  shows 
a  division  into  two  different  parts,  i.  e.  nucleus  and  plasma.  The  imme- 
diate production  of  such  an  object  from  spontaneous  generation  is 
obviously  only  conceivable  with  difficulty;  but  it  is  much  easier  to 
conceive  of  the  production  of  an  entirely  homogeneous,  organic  sub- 
stance, such  as  the  structureless  albumen  body  of  the  Monera.' 


122  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

originally  separate  coming  into  contact  accident- 
ally, unite  or  fuse  together  into  a  single  individual. 
The  blunt  projections  of  its  body-mass,  by  means  of 
which  it  is  continually  varying  in  form,  contrast  notably 
with  the  fine  thread-like  prolongations,  occasionally 
interlacing,  which  are  thrown  out  from  Max  Schultze's 
nearly  allied  Amoeba  porrecta.  These  latter  projections, 
or  pseudopodite,  as  they  have  been  termed,  closely  resemble 
those  met  with  in  the  shelled-amcebse  or  Foraminifera  l. 
But  even  in  1857  an  organism  was  procured  from 
great  depths  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  Captain 
Dayman,  which  ought,  apparently,  to  be  placed  in 
this  same  group  Monera.  This  and  other  products  of 
Captain  Dayman's  expedition  were  examined  by  Pro- 
fessor Huxley,  and  since  the  publication  of  HaeckeFs 
Memoir,  he  has  proposed  to  look  upon  this  organism 
as  a  cMoner,'  placing  it  in  a  new  genus  Bathyfaus. 
Recent  expeditions  and  fresh  investigations  have  tended 


1  Speaking  of  this  animal,  the  Amoeba  porrecta,  Max  Schultze  says : — 
'  It  sends  out  from  its  colourless  body,  on  all  sides,  numerous  fibrous 
processes,  short  and  broad  on  their  first  extrusion,  but  which  gradually 
elongate  until  they  exceed  the  diameter  of  the  body  eight  or  ten  times, 
and  taper  to  such  fine  extremities  that  a  magnifying  power  of  400  dia- 
meters is  needed  to  distinguish  them.  The  figure  ,and  extension  of  the 
body  change  every  moment,  according  to  the  side  in  which  the  ramifica- 
tions are  extended.  If  two  or  more  of  the  filiform  processes  touch, 
a  coalescence  takes  place,  and  broader  plates  or  net -like  interlacements 
are  produced,  which,  in  the  continual  changes  of  figure,  are  either  taken 
up  again  into  the  general  mass,  or  otherwise  are  further  increased  by 
a  fresh  influx  of  matter,  until  finally  the  entire  body  is  transposed  to 
their  place.' 


I 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  123 

to  throw  a  great  additional  interest  over  this  oceanic 
Moner,  which,  it  is  now  believed,  must  have  existed 
far  back  in  geologic  time,  and  must  have  played  a 
most  important  part,  by  the  accumulation  of  its  in- 
organic remains,  in  the  formation  of  ancient  chalk 
strata,  just  as  it  is  now  being  instrumental  in  the  de- 
position of  another  chalk  stratum  in  the  bottom  of  our 
great  Atlantic  Ocean1.  Captain  Dayman  was  much 

1  Referring  to  this  subject  in  an  interesting  lecture  '  On  a  Piece  of 
Chalk'  (' Macmillan's  Mag.'  Sep.  1868,  p.  399),  Prof.  Huxley  says: — 
<  The  result  of  all  these  operations  is  that  we  know  the  contours  and 
nature  of  the  surface-soil  covered  by  the  North  Atlantic  for  a  distance 
of  1,700  miles  from  east  to  west,  as  well  as  we  know  that  of  any  part  of 
the  dry  land.  ...  It  is  a  prodigious  plain — one  of  the  widest  and  most 
even  plains  in  the  world.  If  the  sea  were  drained  off,  you  might  drive 
a  waggon  all  the  way  from  Valentia,  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  to 
Trinity  Bay  in  Newfoundland.  .  .  .  From  Valentia  the  road  would  lie 
down  hill  for  about  200  miles  to  the  point  at  which  the  bottom  is  now 
covered  by  1,700  fathoms  of  sea  water.  Then  would  come  the  central 
plain  more  than  a  thousand  miles  wide,  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  of 
which  would  be  hardly  perceptible,  though  the  depth  of  water  upon  it 
now  varies  from  10,000  to  15,000  feet;  and  there  are  places  in  which 
Mont  Blanc  might  be  sunk  without  showing  its  peak  above  water. 
Beyond  this,  the  ascent  on  the  American  side  commences,  and  gradually 
leads,  for  about  300  miles,  to  the  Newfoundland  shore.  .  .  .  Almost  the 
whole  of  the  bottom  of  this  central  plain  (which  extends  for  many 
hundred  miles  in  a  north  and  south  direction)  is  covered  by  a  fine  mud, 
which,  when  brought  to  the  surface,  dries  into  a  greyish-white,  friable 
substance.  You  can  write  with  this  on  a  black  board,  if  you  are  so 
inclined,  and  to  the  eye  it  is  quite  like  very  soft,  greyish  chalk.  Examined 
chemically,  it  proves  to  be  composed  almost  wholly  of  carbonate  of  lime ; 
and  if  you  make  a  section  of  it  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  piece  of 
chalk  was  made,  and  view  it  with  the  microscope,  it  presents  innume- 
rable GlobigerincB,  embedded  in  a  granular  matrix.  .  .  .  Thus  this  deep 
sea  mud  is  substantially  chalk.  I  say  substantially,  because  there  are 


124  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

struck  with  the  sticky,  viscid  character  of  the  mud  from 
great  depths,  and  thus  speaks  of  it  in  his  Report1: — 
'Between  the  i5th  and  45th  degrees  of  west  longitude 
lies  the  deepest  part  of  the  ocean,  the  bottom  of  which 
is  almost  wholly  composed  of  the  same  kind  of  soft 
mealy  substance,  which,  for  want  of  a  better  name, 
I  have  called  ooze.  This  substance  is  remarkably 
sticky,  having  been  found  to  adhere  to  the  sounding-rod 
and  line  (as  has  been  stated  above),  through  its  passage 
from  the  bottom  to  the  surface,  in  some  instances  from 
a  depth  of  more  than  2000  fathoms.'  This  is  the 
character  of  the  mud  in  the  warm  area  of  the  ocean, 
though  the  more  recent  expeditions  of  Dr.  Carpenter 
and  Professor  Wyville  Thompson  have  shown  that  the 
character  of  the  bottom  is  totally  different  in  the  cold 
portion  of  the  strait  between  the  Faroe  and  the  Shet- 
land Islands — in  that  part  over  which  flows  the  down- 
current  from  the  Arctic  basin.  Referring  to  Captain 
Dayman's  description,  Professor  Huxley  says2: — cThis 
stickiness  of  the  deep  sea  mud  arises,  J  suppose,  from 
the  circumstance  that,  in  addition  to  the  Globlgerina 
of  all  sizes  which  are  its  chief  constituents,  it  contains 
innumerable  lumps  of  a  transparent,  gelatinous  sub- 
stance. These  lumps  are  of  all  sizes,  from  patches 

a  good  many  minor  differences.'  For  further  information  on  this  most 
interesting  subject  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  Lecture  itself. 

1  '  Deep-Sea  Soundings  in  the  North' Atlantic  Ocean,'  1858. 

2  On  some  Organisms  living  at  great  Depths  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean,  'Quarterly  Journal   of  Microscopical  Science,'  October,   1868, 
p.  105. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OP  LIFE.  125 

visible  with  the  naked  eye  to  excessively  minute  par- 
ticles. When  one  of  these  is  submitted  to  microsco- 
pical analysis  it  exhibits — imbedded  in  a  transparent, 
colourless,  and  structureless  matrix — granules,  cocoliths, 
and  foreign  particles  V 

But  those  who  wish  to  make  themselves  acquainted 
with  the  Protamcebtf,  need  not  seek  for  them  only  in 
comparatively  inaccessible  regions.  They  are  in  reality 
common  in  the  fine  surface  mud  of  many  of  our  fresh- 
water ponds,  and  may  easily  be  detected  by  the  skilled 
microscopist  when  once  he  has  familiarized  himself 
with  their  appearance.  We  have  lately  detected,  in 
material  taken  from  such  situations,  organisms  similar 
in  kind  though  much  more  minute  than  the  Protamceba 

1  One  of  the  most  interesting  subjects  attaching  to  these  lower  organ- 
isms of  the  Protistic  kingdom,  is  the  enquiry  as  to  how  they  are  nourished 
— whether,  like  plants,  they  live  upon  inorganic  elements  abstracted  from 
their  environment,  or,  like  animals,  upon  organic  substances  already 
elaborated.  Dr.  Wallich  has  strongly  maintained  the  former  view  in 
opposition  to  Dr.  Carpenter's  opinions  that  the  Foraminifera  are 
nourished  after  the  fashion  of  animals.  In  these  and  in  similar  low 
oceanic  organisms  he  has  frequently  expressed  his  belief  that '  nutrition 
is  affected  by  a  vital  act  which  enables  the  organism  to  extract  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  lime  from  the  surrounding  medium,  and 
to  convert  these  ingredients  into  sarcode  and  shell  material.'  ('  Monthly 
Microscopical  Journal,'  January  i,  1869.)  This  elimination  of  inorganic 
elements,  and  their  conversion  into  protoplasm,  Dr.  Wallich  believes  to 
be  dependent  upon  '  a  special  vital  force  inherent  in  the  protoplasmic 
mass  itself,  and  diffused,  in  all  probability,  throughout  its  substance.'  In 
view  of  this  hypothesis,  or  of  certain  modifications  thereof,  concerning 
Protistic  life,  it  is  most  interesting  for  us  to  learn,  from  the  analyses 
of  Dr.  Frankland,  that  a  large  quantity  of  nitrogen,  both  free  and 
combined,  exists  in  the  water  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 


126  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

primiti'va  of  Prof.  Haeckel.  These  have  presented  them- 
selves in  the  form  of  minute  irregularly-shaped,  almost 
transparent  specks  of  homogeneous  jelly,  about  To(^0(>" 
in  diameter.  They  seldom  showed  even  a  vacuole  in 
their  interior.  They  underwent  slow,  though  obvious 
changes  in  form ;  and  they  exhibited  slight  to-and-fro, 
or  somewhat  jerkingly-progressive  movements.  Essen- 
tially similar  organisms  will,  in  all  probability,  here- 
after be  found  to  be  most  widely  distributed.  They 
are,  in  almost  every  respect,  similar  to  the  minute  jelly- 
specks,  which  we  shall  afterwards  find  making  their  ap-. 
pearance  in  previously  homogeneous  organic  solutions; 
and  they  are,  we  believe,  thoroughly  primordial  organ- 
isms, capable  of  originating  de  novo  in  organic  solutions. 
Concerning  this  part  of  our  subject,  however,  we  shall 
have  more  to  say  hereafter. 

This  then  is  the  material  which  was  spoken  of  by 
Professor  Huxley1  as  cThe  Physical  Basis  of  Life;'  and 
the  upholders  of  the  Protoplasm  or  Sarcode  theory  main- 
tain that  this  substance  has  an  essential  unity  of  nature. 
So  that,  in  spite  of  minute  specific  and  isomeric  dif- 
ferences, we  have  in  reality  to  do  with  one  and  the  same 
generic  substance, whether  existing  as  the  'contents'  of 
animal  and  vegetable  cells,  or  as  naked  masses  of  proto- 
plasm— whether  as  parts  of  higher  organisms,  or  as  single 
independent  beings  such  as  we  have  just  been  de- 
scribing. The  belief  that  all  these  various  forms  are  but 

1  '  Fortnightly  Review,'  1869^ 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  127 

trifling  alterations  of  a  single  genus  of  primitive  organ- 
izable  material,  and  that  in  all  cases  this  *  albuminous 
material  is  the  original  active  substratum  of  all  vital 
phenomena,  may/  says  Professor  Haeckel,  <  perhaps  be 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  modern 
biology,  and  one  of  the  richest  in  results/ 

Protoplasm  then,  in  its  most  general  and  undifferen- 
tiated  condition,  in  the  form  of  a  naked  contractile 
mass  of  seemingly  homogeneous  jelly,  is  the  substratum 
for  all  the  life-movements  of  the  lowest  living  things, 
even  in  their  adult  condition.  A  structureless  mass 
of  jelly  suffices  for  the  display  of  all  the  vital  phe- 
nomena of  the  lowest  organisms.  Here,  without  the 
aid  of  organs  of  any  kind,  are  carried  on  the  vital 
phenomena  of  c  growth'  and  c  reproduction ;'  here  do 
we  see  the  first  germs  of  that  organic  irritability  and 
contractility  which  attain  their  highest  development  in 
the  conscious  sensibility  and  power  of -movement  pos- 
sessed by  those  living  things  which  stand  at  the  head 
rather  than  at  the  foot  of  organic  nature.  Here  does 
that  which  has  what  we  call  Life  approximate  most 
closely  to  that  which  has  no  Life  :  and  who  will  venture 
to  draw  a  rigid  line  which  is  to  separate  these  two 
categories  from  one  another  ?  As  we  have  said  before, 
the  theory  of  evolution  knows  nothing  of  c  absolute 
commencements;'  rather,  as  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  puts 
it,  '  every  kind  of  being  is  conceived  as  a  product 
of  modifications  wrought  by  insensible  gradations  on 
a  pre-existing  kind  of  being.'  We  must  not,  therefore. 


128  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

look  for  an  absolute  barrier  between  the  Living  and 
the  not-living.  We  know  nothing  of  an  absolute  com- 
mencement of  Life ;  we  may  know  some  of  the  lowest 
living  things,  as  mere  specks  of  almost  inconceivable 
smallness,  barely  perceptible  even  by  our  highest  micro- 
scopic powers — but  these  are  even  then  living  organic 
units.  We  cannot,  however,  penetrate  further — who 
can  describe  the  primordial  collocations  ?  However 
much  we  may  wish  it,  we  cannot  be  present  at  the 
genesis  of  Life — the  veil  is  still  there.  The  gradual 
transition  from  the  not-living  to  the  Living  is  still 
hidden  from  our  view,  and  so,  perhaps,  it  may  ever 
remain. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

RELATIONS    OF    ANIMAL,    VEGETABLE,    AND    MINERAL    KINGDOMS. 
THEORIES    OF    ORGANIZATION. 

The  two  higher  Organic  Kingdoms.  Relations  of  Plants  and  Animals 
to  one  another,  and  to  Air,  Earth,  and  Water.  Plants  produce  and 
Animals  consume  organic  matter.  Plants  derive  Carbon  from  the 
air.  Illustrations  from  past  succession  of  Life  on  our  globe. 
Nature's  Cycle.  Plants  continually  producing  Living  Matter  from 
inorganic  materials. 

Theories  of  Organization.  Cells.  Doctrines  of  Schleiden  and  Schwann. 
Views  of  Goodsir.  Virchow's  Cellular  doctrines.  Modifications  of 
views  concerning  the  Cell  and  its  powers.  These  necessitated  by 
our  knowledge  of  the  Protista.  Cells  and  Plastides.  Dr.  Pile's 
views  concerning  Germinal  matter  and  '  Formed  material.'  Prof. 
Huxley's  opposition  to  Cellular  Theories.  Dr.  Hughes  Bennett's 
'  Molecular  Theory  of  Organization.'  Doctrine  now  maintained  by 
very  many  Physiologists.  This  in  harmony  with  Evolution  Hypo- 
thesis. Reason  why  Cells  are  so  common  as  morphological  units. 
Do  they  arise  de  novo  in  blastemata  ? 

EAVING  now  for  a  time  the  consideration  of 
the  nature  of  the  lowest  known  forms  of  Life, 
and  all  speculations  as  to  the  mode  of  evolution  of 
those  combinations  of  matter  and  motion  out  of  which, 
by  the  most  insensible  gradations,  they  have  gradually 
arisen,  it  will  be  desirable  to  turn  our  attention  to  the 
mutual  relation  of  Plants  and  Animals  to  one  another, 

K 


130  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

and  to  those  great  storehouses  of  inorganic  elements — 
earth,  air,  and  water. 

Whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  functions  of  the  lowest 
living  things,  and  their  relations  with  the  environment, 
or  aqueous  medium  in  which  they  alone  exist,  we  find, 
on  coming  to  those  more  definite  organisms  which  can, 
without  room  for  doubt,  be  ranged  under  either  the 
Animal  or  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,  that  the  members 
of  each  great  class  have  functions  definitely  related  to 
one  another  and  to  the  world  of  unorganized  matter. 

Bearing  in  mind  that  the  fundamental  constituents 
of  living  things  are  carbon,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  we  must  also  remember  that  the  degree  in  which 
other  constituents  (such  as  sulphur  and  phosphorus  with 
various  saline  materials)  enter  into  the  composition  of 
organic  matter,  is  altogether  trifling  when  compared 
with  the  immense  bulk  of  living  tissue  that  is  almost 
solely  built  up  of  these  four  elements  in  their  diverse 
modes  of  combination. 

We  shall  then  be  the  better  able  to  appreciate  the 
doctrine  so  eloquently  expounded  by  the  eminent  French 
chemist,  M.  Dumas,  in  a  work  by  himself  and  M.  Bous- 
singault,  on  c  The  Chemical  and  Physiological  Balance 
of  Organic  Nature.'  He  calls  attention  again  and  again, 
in  the  most  forcible  language,  to  the  all-important  com- 
plemental  relation  existing  between  the  functions  of 
plants  and  animals.  Plants  in  their  natural  and  healthy 
state  decompose  carbonic  acid  incessantly,  fixing  its 
carbon  and  setting  free  its  oxygen :  similarly  they  de- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  131 

compose  water,  seizing  upon  its  hydrogen  and  releasing 
its  oxygen ;  whilst,  lastly,  they  abstract  nitrogen  either 
directly  from  the  atmosphere,  or  indirectly  from  the 
nitrate  of  ammonia  which,  under  particular  conditions, 
has  been  formed  therein.  Plants,  therefore,  are  mar- 
vellous apparatuses  of  reduction,  working  with  the  aid 
of  the  heat  and  light  derived  from  the  Sun.  But  this  is 
not  all.  The  carbonic  acid,  the  water,  and  the  nitrate 
of  ammonia  are  decompounded,  because  the  carbon,  the 
hydrogen,  and  the  nitrogen  entering  into  their  compo- 
sition, unite  with  oxygen  to  produce  the  various  organic 
substances  entering  into  the  fabric  of  plants.  Reduc- 
tion takes  place,  but  only  that  combinations  of  a  higher 
order  may  arise.  Animals,  on  the  contrary,  are  true 
apparatuses  of  combustion:  in  their  bodies  carbon- 
aceous matters  are  burnt  incessantly  during  the  per- 
formance of  animal  functions,  and  are  returned  to  the 
atmosphere  in  the  shape  of  carbonic  acid;  hydro- 
gen burnt  incessantly  is  returned  as  water;  whilst 
nitrogen  is  ceaselessly  exhaled  in  the  breath  and  thrown 
off  in  the  different  excretions1.  cFrom  the  animal 

1  This  continual  process  of  combustion  is  dependent  upon  the  con- 
joint and  reciprocal  action  of  the  respiratory  and  nutritive  functions. 
Through  the  process  of  respiration  the  animal  is  supplied  with  an  all- 
important  element,  needed  for  the  production  of  such  changes.  Mr. 
Spencer  says: — 'The  inorganic  substance,  however,  on  which  mainly 
depend  these  metamorphoses  in  organic  matter,  is  not  swallowed  along 
with  the  solid  and  liquid  food,  but  is  absorbed  from  the  surrounding 
medium— air  or  water,  as  the  case  may  be.  Whether  the  oxygen  taken 
in,  either,  as  by  the  lowest  animals,  through  the  general  surface,  or,  as 
by  the  higher  animals,  through  respiratory  organs,  is  the  immediate  cause 

K  2 


132  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

kingdom,  therefore,  as  a  whole,'  M.  Dumas  says,  c  car- 
bonic acid,  watery  vapour,  and  azote  or  oxide  of  ammo- 
nium are  continually  escaping — simple  substances  and 
few  in  number,  the  formation  of  which  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  atmosphere  itself:' 
substances,  too,  which  plants  are  continually  needing, 
and  are  as  continually  abstracting  from  the  air.  M. 
Dumas  also  says : — c  It  is  in  plants,  consequently,  that 
the  true  laboratory  of  organic  nature  resides ;  carbon, 
hydrogen,  ammonium,  and  water  are  the  elements  they 
work  upon ;  and  woody  fibre,  starch,  gums,  and  sugars, 
on  the  one  hand,  fibrine,  albumen,  caseum,  and  gluten, 
on  the  other,  are  the  products  that  present  themselves 
as  fundamental  in  either  organic  kingdom  of  nature — 
products,  however,  which  are  formed  in  plants^  and  in 

of  those  molecular  changes  that  are  ever  going  on  throughout  the  living 
tissues ;  or  whether  the  oxygen,  playing  the  part  of  scavenger,  merely 
aids  these  changes  by  carrying  away  the  products  of  decomposition 
otherwise  caused ;  it  remains  equally  true  that  these  changes  are  main- 
tained by  its  instrumentality.  Whether  the  oxygen  absorbed  and  dif- 
fused through  the  system  effects  a  direct  oxidation  of  the  organic  colloid 
which  it  permeates ;  or  whether  it  first  leads  to  the  formation  of  simpler 
and  more  oxidized  compounds,  that  are  afterwards  further  oxidized  and 
reduced  to  still  simpler  forms;  matters  not  in  so  far  as  the  general 
result  is  concerned.  In  any  case  it  holds  good,  that  the  substances  of 
which  the  animal  body  is  built  up  enter  it  in  a  but  slightly  oxidized  and 
highly  unstable  state ;  while  the  great  mass  of  them  leave  it  in  a  fully 
oxidized  and  stable  state.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  whatever  the 
special  changes  gone  through,  the  general  process  is  a  falling  from 
a  state  of  unstable  equilibrium,  to  a  state  of  stable  chemical  equilibrium. 
Whether  this  process  be  direct  or  indirect,  the  total  molecular  re- 
arrangement and  the  total  motion  given  out  in  effecting  it  must  be  the 
same.'  ('  Principles  of  Biology,'  vol.  i.  p.  34.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  133 

plants  only^  and  merely  transferred  by  digestion  to  the  bodies 
of  etwmals? 

Thus  we  find  that  the  vegetable  world  is  the  great 
originator  and  source  of  that  pabulum  which  is  necessary 
for  the  existence  of  animals.  Plants  are  the  active 
agents  ever  ministering  to  the  wants  of  animals.  They, 
in  fashioning  their  own  structures,  are  continually 
giving  birth  to  organic  substances  which  are  to  consti- 
tute the  materials  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of 
animal  life.  Animals,  as  a  rule,  are  powerless  for  the 
creation  of  organic  matter  1  j  they  can  assimilate  and 
modify  the  organic  substances  which  have  been  built 
up  for  them  in  the  tissues  of  plants ;  but  they  cannot 
abstract  from  earth,  air,  and  water  the  elementary  con- 
stituents of  organic  matter,  and  force  them  to  enter 
into  such  and  such  combinations.  They  use  the 
materials  which  have  been  elaborated  for  them  by 
plants,  since  they  all  feed  either  directly  upon  members 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  or  else  indirectly  by  living 
upon  animals  which  have  been  so  nourished.  Plants,  then, 
are  the  great  factors  of  organic  matter — the  vegetable 


1  '  Animals  assimilate  or  absorb  the  organic  substances  which  plants 
have  formed.  They  alter  them  by  degrees  ;  they  destroy  or  decom- 
pound them.  New  organic  substances  may  arise  in  their  tissues,  in 
their  vessels ;  but  these  are  always  substances  of  greater  simplicity, 
more  akin  to  the  elementary  state  than  those  they  had  received.  They 
decompose,  then,  by  degrees  the  organic  matters  created  by  plants. 
They  bring  them  back  by  degrees  towards  the  state  of  carbonic  acid, 
water,  azote,  and  ammonia,  a  state  which  admits  of  their  ready  resto- 
ration to  the  air.'  Dumas,  loc.  cit.  p.  48. 


134  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

kingdom  is  nature's  laboratory,  within  whose  sacred 
precincts  dead  brute  matter  is  coerced  into  more 
elevated  and  complex  modes  of  being,  and  is  made  to 
display  those  more  subtle  characteristics  which  we  find 
in  living  tissues.  Using  only  the  great  forces  of  nature 
— availing  themselves  only  of  the  subtle  motions  ema- 
nating from  the  Sun  under  the  names  of  heat,  light,  and 
actinism — plants  compel  carbonic  acid  to  yield  up  its 
carbon,  water  its  hydrogen,  and  nitrate  of  ammonia  its 
nitrogen;  and,  at  the  same  time,  these  separated 
elements,  with  some  of  the  retained  oxygen x,  are  still 
further  forced  by  an  accumulation  of  these  mysterious 
impacts  to  enter  into  combinations  of  a  higher  order. 

M.  Dumas,  speaking  of  the  sources  whence  are  de- 
rived the  ammonia  and  the  nitric  acid  used  as  food 
by  plants,  says : — c  They  are,  in  fact,  produced  upon  the 
grand  scale  by  the  action  of  those  magnificent  electric 
sparks  which  dart  from  the  storm-cloud,  and  furrowing 
vast  fields  of  air,  engender  in  their  course  the  nitrate 
of  ammonia,  which  analysis  discovers  in  the  thunder 
shower.  .  .  .  As  it  is  from  the  mouths  of  volcanoes, 
then,  whose  convulsions  so  often  make  the  crust  of  our 
globe  to  tremble,  that  the  principal  food  of  plants,  car- 
bonic acid,  is  incessantly  poured  out ;  so  is  it  from  the 


1  Dumas  says  ('  Lee.  de  Philosophic  Chimique,'  p.  100,  Paris,  1837)  : 
'  These  are  the  four  bodies,  in  fact,  which,  becoming  animated  at  the  fire 
of  the  sun,  the  true  torch  of  Prometheus,  approve  themselves  upon 
the  earth,  the  eternal  agents  of  organization,  of  sensation,  of  motion, 
and  of  thought.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  135 

atmosphere  on  fire  with  lightnings,  from  the  bosom  of 
the  tempest,  that  the  second  and  scarcely  less  indis- 
pensable aliment  of  plants,  nitrate  of  ammonia,  is 
showered  down  for  their  behoof.'  Thus  the  air  is  the 
great  storehouse  for  the  pabulum  of  plants,  so  that,  look- 
ing at  the  subject,  as  M.  Dumas  says,  c  from  the  loftiest 
point  of  view,  and  in  connection  with  the  physics  of 
the  globe,  it  would  be  imperative  on  us  to  say  that,  in 
so  far  as  their  truly  organic  elements  are  concerned, 
plants  and  animals  are  the  offspring  of  the  air' 

It  might  be  thought  that  plants  derive  the  principal 
part  of  the  ingredients  with  which  they  build  up  their 
own  structures  from  the  soil;  but  the  experiments  of 
M.  Boussingault  have  long  since  disproved  this  formerly 
favoured  assumption.  He  found  that  peas  sown  in 
pure  sand,  moistened  with  distilled  water,  and  fed  by 
the  air  alone,  nevertheless  found  in  this  air  all  the  car- 
bon necessary  for  their  development,  flowering,  and 
fructification.  Carbon  is  the  most  fundamental  ingre- 
dient of  the  vegetable  kingdom;  all  plants  fix  this 
substance,  and  all  obtain  it  from  carbonic  acid — either 
abstracting  it  directly  from  the  air  by  their  leaves,  or 
obtaining  it  through  their  rootlets.  In  the  latter  case 
they  may  obtain  it  from  rains  which  have  fallen  to  the 
earth  impregnated  with  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, or  else  they  procure  it  from  that  which  is 
liberated  by  the  gradual  decomposition  of  organic  par- 
ticles in  the  soil.  But  that  the  air  is  the  great  storehouse 
whence,  either  mediately  or  immediately,  plants  procure 


136  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

their  carbon,  is  rendered  more  and  more  obvious  to  us 
by  the  consideration  of  such  facts  as  those  to  which 
Schleiden  refers  when  he  says 1 : — c  From  forests  main- 
tained in  good  condition  we  annually  obtain  about 
4000  Ibs.  of  dry  wood  per  acre,  which  contains  about 
1000  Ibs.  of  carbon.  But  we  do  not  manure  the  soil 
of  the  forests,  and  its  supply  of  humus,  far  from  being 
exhausted,  increases  considerably  from  year  to  year, 
owing  to  the  breakage  by  wind  and  the  fall  of  the  leaf. 
The  haymaker  of  Switzerland  and  the  Tyrol  mows  his 
definite  amount  of  grass  every  year  on  the  Alps,  inacces- 
sible to  cattle,  and  gives  not  back  the  smallest  quantity 
of  organic  substance  to  the  soil.  Whence  comes  this 
hay  if  not  from  the  atmosphere  ?  The  plant  requires 
carbon  and  nitrogen,  and  in  the  woods  and  on  the  wild 
Alps  there  is  no  possibility  of  its  acquiring  these 
matters  save  from  the  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid  of 
the  atmosphere.3 

How  important  such  facts  as  these  are  in  throwing 
light  upon  the  past  history  of  our  globe,  when  we 
attempt  to  study  it  with  the  aid  of  those  relics, 
preserved  as  fossil  plants  and  animals,  and  dis- 
tributed through  the  various  successive  strata  of  its 
crust,  the  palaeontologists  are  best  entitled  to  inform 
us.  M.  Ad.  Brongniart,  one  of  the  most  able  and 
eloquent  of  these,  even  so  long  ago  as  the  year  1838 
announced,  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  fol- 

1  '  Biography  of  a  Plant.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  137 

lowing  broad  views  concerning  the  succession  of  Life 
on  the  earth1: — 

cWe  know,  in  fact,  that  in  the  strata  of  older  date 
than,  or  of  the  same  epoch  as,  the  coal  formations,  there 
are  no  remains  of  any  terrestrial  animal,  whilst  at  this 
epoch  vegetation  had  already  made  great  progress,  and 
was  composed  of  plants  as  remarkable  for  their  forms 
as  for  their  gigantic  stature.  At  a  later  period  ter- 
restrial vegetation  loses  in  a  great  measure  the  signal 
vigour  which  it  formerly  possessed,  and  cold-blooded 
vertebrate  animals  become  extremely  numerous :  this 
is  what  is  observed  during  the  third  period. 

c  Subsequently,  plants  become  more  varied,  more  per- 
fect ,  but  the  analogues  of  those  that  existed  originally 
are  reduced  to  a  vastly  smaller  stature:  this  is  the 
epoch  of  the  appearance  of  the  most  perfect  animals, 
of  animals  breathing  air,  of  mammalia,  and  birds. 

cls  there  no  means  of  discovering  some  cause  adequate 
to  explain  in  a  natural  way  this  vast  development,  this 
vigorous  growth  of  plants  breathing  air,  even  from  the 
most  remote  epochs  in  the  formation  of  the  globe? 
And,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  appearance  of  warm- 
blooded animals,  that  is  to  say,  of  animals  whose  aerial 
respiration  is  most  active  in  the  last  periods  of  its 
formation  only  ?  May  not  this  difference  in  the  epoch 
of  the  appearance  of  these  two  classes  of  beings  depend 
on  the  difference  in  their  mode  of  respiration,  and 

1  Quoted  in  Dumas  and  Boussingault's  '  Chemical  and  Physiological 
Balance  of  Organic  Nature.' 


138  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

of  the  circumstances  in  the  state  of  the  atmosphere 
calculated  to  favour  the  development  of  one  and  to 
oppose  that  of  the  other  ? 

c  Under  what  form  at  the  epoch  of  the  creation  of 
organized  beings  did  the  whole  of  the  carbon  exist 
which  these  beings  subsequently  absorbed,  and  which 
is  now  buried  with  their  spoils  in  the  bosom  of  the 
earth,  or  which  is  still  met  with  distributed  among 
the  infinite  multitude  of  organized  beings  that  actually 
cover  the  face  of  our  globe  ? 

c  It  is  obvious  that  animals  derive  carbon  neither 
from  the  atmosphere  nor  the  soil,  but  exclusively  from 
their  food. 

c  We  cannot  conceive  how  plants  could  have  assimi- 
lated this  carbon  had  it  been  in  the  solid  state  j  and, 
moreover,  in  the  formations  older  than  those  that 
include  the  first  remains  of  vegetables,  we  scarcely 
encounter  any  traces  of  carbon. 

cThis  carbon,  then,  which  the  vegetables  of  the 
primitive  world,  and  those  of  the  subsequent  and 
present  world,  absorbed,  must  necessarily  have  existed 
in  a  shape  proper  to  furnish  them  with  nutriment ; 
and  we  only  know  of  two — humus  or  vegetable  mould, 
which,  resulting  itself  from  the  decomposition  of  other 
vegetables,  would  lead  us  into  a  vicious  circle,  and 
carbonic  acid,  which,  decomposed  by  the  leafage  of 
vegetables  under  the  influence  of  solar  light,  deposits 
its  carbon,  and  so  serves  for  their  growth. 

c  It  appears  to  me  impossible,  therefore,  to  suppose 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  139 

that  vegetables  can  have  derived  from  any  other  source 
than  the  atmosphere,  and  in  the  state  of  carbonic  acid, 
the  carbon  which  is  found  in  all  existing  species  of 
plants  and  animals.,  as  well  as  that  which,  after  having 
served  the  vast  primeval  forests  for  sustenance,  has 
been  deposited,  under  the  form  of  coal,  lignite,  and 
bitumen,  in  the  different  sedimentary  strata  of  the 
earth.  If  we  suppose,  then,  that  the  whole  of  this 
carbon  was  diffused  through  the  atmosphere  in  the 
shape  of  carbonic  acid  prior  to  the  creation  of  organ- 
ized beings,  we  shall  see  that  the  atmosphere,  instead 
of  containing  less  than  the  one-thousandth  part  of  its 
bulk  of  carbonic  acid  as  at  present,  must  have  con- 
tained a  quantity  which  it  is  not  easy  to  estimate 
exactly,  but  which  was  perhaps  in  the  proportion  of 
3,  4,  5,  6,  and  even  8  per  cent/ 

But  the  experiments  of  M.  Saussure  have  shown  that 
such  a  super-abundance  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  at- 
mosphere, far  from  being  detrimental,  is  positively 
favourable  to  the  life  of  plants  when  they  are  at  the 
same  time  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  solar  light 
and  heat.  So  that,  as  M.  Brongniart  says, — c  This 
highly  probable  difference  in  the  constitution  of  the 
atmosphere  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
causes  influencing  most  powerfully  the  more  active  and 
very  remarkable  vegetation  of  the  first  organic  period 
of  our  globe1. 

1  '  But  this  same  circumstance  must,  on  the  contrary,  have  interfered 
materially  with  the  decomposition  of  the  remains  of  dead  vegetables 


1 40  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

c  On  the  other  hand,  this  difference  in  the  com- 
position of  the  atmosphere,  so  favourable  to  the  de- 
velopment., growth,  and  preservation  of  vegetable 
matter,  must  have  proved  a  bar  to  the  existence  of 
animals,  particularly  of  warm-blooded  animals,  whose 
respiration,  as  it  is  more  active,  also  requires  a  purer 
air :  during  this  first  period,  consequently,  not  a  single 
animal  breathing  air  appears  to  have  existed. 

c  During  this  period  the  atmosphere  must  have  been 
purged  of  some  portion  of  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid 
which  it  contained,  by  the  vegetables  which  then  existed ; 
these  assimilated  it  first,  and  subsequently  buried  it  in 
the  state  of  coal  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  It  is  after 
this  first  period,  in  the  course  of  our  second  and  third 
periods,  that  this  immense  variety  of  monstrous  reptiles 
makes  its  appearance,  animals  which,  by  the  nature  of 
their  respiration,  are  capable  of  living  in  an  atmosphere 
of  much  less  purity  than  that  which  warm-blooded 
animals  require,  and  were  the  heralds  and  precursors 
of  these. 

c  Vegetables  continued  incessantly  to  abstract  a 
portion  of  the  carbon  of  the  air,  and  thus  rendered 


and  their  transformation  into  soil;  for  this  kind  of  decomposition  is 
owing  essentially  to  the  abstraction  of  a  portion  of  the  carbon  of  the 
wood  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air :  and  if  the  atmosphere  contained  less 
oxygen  and  more  carbonic  acid,  the  decomposition  in  question  must 
have  been  without  doubt  both  more  difficult  and  slower.  Hence  the 
accumulation  of  vegetable  debris  in  extensive  beds,  even  in  circumstances 
and  from  vegetables  which,  in  the  actual  state  of  the  atmosphere,  would 
give  rise  to  no  such  layers  of  combustible  material.1 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  141 

it  every  day  more  pure;  but  it  was  not  till  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  vegetation  altogether  new,  abounding 
in  mighty  trees,  the  source  and  origin  of  numerous 
deposits  of  lignite,  a  vegetation  which  seems  to  have 
covered  the  surface  of  the  earth  with  vast  forests,  that 
a  great  number  of  mammiferous  animals,  analogous  in 
all  the  essential  features  of  their  organization  to  those 
that  still  exist  in  the  world,  appeared  for  the  first  time 
upon  its  surface. 

c  Would  it  not  be  fair  to  suppose  from  this,  that  our 
atmosphere  had  now  arrived  at  that  degree  of  purity 
which  could  alone  comport  with  the  active  respiration 
of  warm-blooded  animals,  and  prove  alike  favourable 
to  the  development  of  plants  and  animals,  whilst  the 
simultaneous  existence  of  these  two  orders  of  beings, 
and  the  inverse  influence  of  their  respiratory  actions, 
conduce  to  maintain  our  atmosphere  in  the  state  of 
stability  which  is  one  of  the  remarkable  characters  of 
the  present  period  ?' 

Such,  then,  is  the  mighty  round  of  things,  such  are 
the  interchanges  ever  taking  place  on  the  surface  of  our 
globe.  The  inorganic  is  continually  being  fashioned  into 
the  organic,  and  this  after  passing  through  successive 
changes,  and  after  having  displayed  the  manifestations 
of  Life,  is  ever  passing  again  into  the  inorganic,  ever 
again  giving  up  its  fashioning  forces.  c  The  crude  and 
formless  mass  of  the  air  gradually  organized  in  veget- 
ables, passes  without  change  into  animals,  and  be- 
comes the  instrument  of  sensation  and  thought ;  then 


142  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

vanquished  by  this  effort,  and,  as  it  were,  broken,  it 
returns  as  crude  matter  to  the  source  whence  it  had 
come/  cThus,'  Dumas  also  says,  cis  the  mysterious 
circle  of  organic  life  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe 
completed  and  maintained!  The  air  contains  or  en- 
genders the  oxidized  substances  required  —  carbonic 
acid,  water,  nitric  acid,  and  ammonia.  Vegetables,  true 
reducing  apparatus,  seize  upon  the  radicals  of  these, 
carbon,  hydrogen,  azote,  ammonium;  and  with  them 
they  fashion  all  the  variety  of  organic  or  organizable 
matters  which  they  supply  to  animals.  Animals,  again, 
true  apparatuses  of  combustion,  reproduce  from  them 
carbonic  acid,  water,  oxide  of  ammonium,  and  azotic 
or  nitric  acid,  which  return  to  the  air  to  reproduce  the 
same  phenomena  to  the  end  of  time.' 

Thus  we  see  that  throughout  vast  epochs,  and  even 
in  the  present  day,  the  Vegetable  Kingdom  has  been, 
and  now  constitutes,  the  great  laboratory  in  which  the 
combination  of  dead  inorganic  or  mineral  materials  into 
living  matter  is  continually  taking  place.  We  have 
also  seen  that  animals  have  no  such  direct  power  of 
elevating  matter  taken  immediately  from  its  inorganic 
sources,  that  they,  on  the  contrary,  avail  themselves  of 
the  previously  constructive  energies  of  plants,  and  use 
for  the  building  up  of  their  own  tissues  complex  sub- 
stances which  have  been  obtained,  more  or  less  directly, 
from  the  members  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  We  have 
next  to  enquire  briefly  into  what  has  been  called  the 
c  Theory  of  Organization/  in  order  to  learn  how  far — 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  143 

within  the  tissues  of  plants  and  animals — there  is  at 
present,  and  has  been  taking  place,  a  corresponding 
evolution  of  living  forms^  or  morphological  units.  This 
enquiry  will  involve  a  consideration  of  the  present 
aspect  of  the  'Cellular  theory'  of  organization,  and  a 
sketch  of  the  principal  modifications  which,  of  late 
years,  that  doctrine  has  undergone. 

Facts  are  still  multiplying  day  by  day  which  tend 
to  show  that  the  elements  of  the  tissues  in  man  and 
in  the  higher  animals  are  possessed  of  an  inherent 
power  and  activity  of  their  own — of  a  separate  indi- 
viduality in  fact,  though  one  which  is  subordinate  to 
the  higher  and  more  complex  individuality  of  the 
organism  to  which  they  belong,  and  as  parts  of  which 
they  have  been  evolved.  Tissue  elements,  such  as 
epithelial  cells,  are  to  a  certain  extent  like  distinct 
organisms.  They  have  a  definite  Life  of  their  own 
—  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  situation  in 
which  they  occur,  and  which  is  therefore  very  vari- 
ously related  to  that  of  the  whole  organism.  Their 
individuality  of  character  or  function  is,  moreover, 
further  shown  by  the  power  which  they  possess  of 
selecting  their  own  peculiar  nutritive  elements  out 
of  a  complex  fluid,  or  nutritive  blastema — the  blood — 
common  to  all  parts  of  the  organism.  But,  granting 
all  this,  the  question  then  comes  for  consideration  as 
to  whether  we  are  to  look  upon  c  Cells'  as  the  invariable 
and  ultimate  morphological  units — whether  they  alone 
can  exhibit  those  subordinate  vital  activities  upon 


144  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

which  the  vital  manifestations  of  the  organism  as  a 
whole  depend.  On  this  subject  much  difference  of 
opinion  exists.  Though  we  cannot  go  into  detail, 
we  will  briefly  consider  the  doctrines  which  have  been 
principally  advocated. 

An  enormous  impulse  was  given  to  such  enquiries  by 
the  publication,  in  the  year  1839,  of  the  researches  of 
Schleiden  and  Schwann1,  who  endeavoured  to  prove 
that  all  the  tissues  of  both  plants  and  animals  were 
entirely  built  up  of  morphological  units  called  c  cells.' 
They  believed  that  cells  were  continually  being  produced 
de  novo  in  the  bodies  of  plants  and  animals.  Speaking 
on  this  subject  Schwann  said2 : — c  The  following  admits 
of  universal  application  to  the  formation  of  cells;  there 
is  in  the  first  instance  a  structureless  substance  present, 
which  is  sometimes  quite  fluid,  at  others  more  or  less 
gelatinous.  This  substance  possesses  within  itself,  in 
a  greater  or  less  measure,  according  to  its  chemical 
qualities  and  the  degree  of  its  vitality,  a  capacity  to 
occasion  the  production  of  cells.  When  this  takes 
place  the  nucleus  usually  appears  to  be  formed  first,  and 
then  the  cell  around  it.  The  formation  of  cells  bears  the 
same  relation  to  organic  nature  that  crystallisation  does  to  in- 
organic. The  cell  when  once  formed  continues  to  grow 
by  its  own  individual  powers,  but  is  at  the  same  time 
directed  by  the  influence  of  the  entire  organism,  in  such 

1  '  Microsc.  Researches   into  the  Accordance   in  the  Structure  and 
Growth  of  Animals  and  Plants.'  Translation  (Sydenham  Society),  1847. 

2  Loc.  cit.  p.  39. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


145 


manner,  as  the  design  of  the  whole  requires.  This  is  the 
fundamental  phenomenon  of  all  animal  and  vegetable 
vegetation.  It  is  alike  equally  consistent  'with  those  instances 
in  which  young  cells  are  formed  within  parent  cells^  as  'with 


FIG.  4. 

Animal  Cells. 

A.  Flattened  Epithelium  cells  from  the  inside  of  the  mouth.  (  x   260.) 

B.  Ciliated  Epithelium  from  the  human  Trachea ;  magnified  350  diame- 

ters, a.  Innermost  part  of  the  elastic  longitudinal  fibres,  b.  Ho- 
mogeneous innermost  layer  of  the  mucous  membrane,  c.  Deepest 
round  cells,  d.  Middle  elongated  cells,  e.  Much  larger  super- 
ficial cells,  bearing  cilia,  and  containing  nucleolated  nuclei.  (K61- 
liker.) 

those  in  "which  the  formation  goes  on  outside  of  them.  The 
generation  of  the  cells  takes  place  in  a  fluid  or  in  a 
structureless  substance  in  both  cases x.  We  will  name 


1  There  are  most  important  differences  between  these  two  modes  of 
cell-formation  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the  material  in  the  midst 
of  which  the  new  units  arise.  This  will  be  pointed  out  further  on. 

L 


146  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

this  substance  in  which  the  cells  are  formed,  cell- 
germinating  material  (Zellenkeimstoff),  or  cytoblas- 
tema.  It  may  be  figuratively,  but  only  figuratively, 
compared  to  the  mother-lye  from  which  crystals  are 
deposited.' 

The  cells  thus  formed  might  remain  isolated,  or, 
by  the  subsequent  development  and  coalescence  of  their 
walls  in  different  ways,  they  might  tend  to  produce 
the  various  textures  of  the  plant  or  animal.  All  the 
tissues  being  thus  either  made  up  of  cells  variously 
aggregated  or  derived  by  a  metamorphic  process  from 
cells,  they  maintained  that  '  the  cause  of  nutrition  and 
growth  resides,  not  in  the  organism  as  a  whole,  but  in 
the  separate  elementary  parts — the  cells.'  Schwann 
believed  that  the  c  same  process  of  development  and 
transformation  of  cells  within  a  structureless  substance 
is  repeated  in  the  formation  of  all  the  organs  of  an 
organism,  as  well  as  in  the  formation  of  new  organ- 
isms;' and  he  thought  that  the  fundamental  phenome- 
non attending  the  exertion  of  productive  power  in 
organic  nature  was  always  of  this  kind. 

Shortly  afterwards  Professor  Goodsir1  advanced  the 
doctrine  that  it  was  not  so  much  the  cells  as  the  nuclei 
of  the  textures  which  are  the  potential  elementary  parts 
of  the  organism,  and  which  therefore  may  be  called 
c  centres  of  nutrition.'  In  a  communication  on  this 
subject  he  said  : — c  The  centre  of  nutrition  with  which 
we  are  most  familiar  is  that  from  which  the  whole 

1  «  Anatomical  and  Pathological  Observations,'  1845. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  1471 

organism  derives  its  origin — the  germinal  spot  of  the 
ovum.  From  this  all  the  other  centres  are  derived, 
either  mediately  or  immediately,  and  in  directions, 
numbers,  and  arrangements,  which  induce  the  configu- 
ration and  structure  of  the  being.  ...  As  the 
entire  organism  is  formed  at  first,  not  by  simultaneous 
formation  of  its  parts,  but  by  the  successive  develop- 
ment of  these  from  one  centre,  so  the  various  parts 
arise  each  from  its  own  centre,  this  being  the  original 
source  of  all  the  centres  with  which  the  part  is  ulti- 
mately supplied.  .  .  .  From  this  it  follows,  not 
only  that  the  entire  organism,  as  has  been  stated  by 
the  authors  of  the  cellular  theory,  consists  of  simple  or 
developed  cells,  each  having  a  peculiar  independent 
vitality,  but  that  there  is,  in  addition,  a  division  of 
the  whole  into  departments,  each  containing  a  certain 
number  of  simple  or  developed  cells,  all  of  which  hold 
certain  relations  to  one  central  or  capital  cell,  around 
which  they  are  grouped1.  It  would  appear  that  from 
this  central  cell  all  the  other  cells  of  its  department 
derive  their  origin/  And  then  he  adds : — c  Centres 
of  nutrition  are  of  two  kinds — those  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  textures,  and  those  which  belong  to  the  organs. 
The  nutritive  centres  of  the  textures  are  in  general 
permanent.  Those  of  the  organs  are  in  most  instances 
peculiar  to  their  embryonic  stage,  and  either  disappear 
ultimately  or  break  up  into  the  various  centres  of  the 

1  This  doctrine  of  '  departments,'  doubtless,  suggested  to  Virchow  his 
modification  of  a  similar  conception,  concerning  '  cell  territories.' 

L   2 


148  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

textures  of  which  the  organs  are  composed.  .  .  . 
A  nutritive  centre,  anatomically  considered,  is  merely 
a  cell,  the  nucleus  of  which  is  the  permanent  source  of 
successive  broods  of  young  cells.' 

But  later  still,  Virchow  announced l  views  which 
have  had  an  immense  influence  on  pathological  doc- 
trines throughout  all  the  schools  of  medicine,  and 
wherever  biological  studies  have  been  cultivated.  He, 
too,  maintains  that  cthe  cell  is  really  the  ultimate 
morphological  unit  in  which  there  is  any  manifesta- 
tion of  life,  and  that  we  must  not  transfer  the  seat  of 
real  action  to  any  point  beyond  the  cell 2.'  But  then  he 
denies  altogether  the  origin  of  cells  de  no<vo  in  blaste- 
mata  taking  place  after  the  fashion  described  by  Schlei- 
den.  He  holds  that  cells  can  be  produced  only  from 
or  by  pre-existing  cells.  And,  moreover,  he  does  not 
attempt  to  prove  that  the  whole  bulk  of  the  tissues  is 
made  up  exclusively  of  cells ;  he  admits  the  existence 
of  a  large  amount  of  intercellular  material  in  many 
tissues,  and  so,  in  order  to  reconcile  this  fact  with  his 
previous  doctrine,  he  is  compelled  to  put  forward  the 
hypothesis  that  such  intercellular  material  may  be 
broken  up  into  imaginary  c  cell  territories,'  each  of 
which  cis  ruled3  over  by  the  cell  which  lies  in  the 

1  '  Cellular  Pathologic/  1858. 

2  Translation  by  Chance,  1859,  p.  3. 

3  This  is  like  a  degradation  of  the  old  '  archseus '  or  vital  principle. 
Instead  of  one  monarch  holding  his  court  in  the  stomach,  this  doctrine 
would  give  us  an  incalculable  number  of  potentates  holding  their  sway 
in  cells  over  '  cell  territories.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  149 

middle  of  it/  He  also  is  disposed  to  attach  much 
importance  to  the  nucleus,  and  believes  that  cas  long 
as  cells  behave  as  elements  still  endowed  with  vital 
power,  the  nucleus  maintains  a  very  constant  form/ 
Thus,  according  to  Virchow,  c  every  animal  presents 
itself  as  a  sum  of  vital  unities J  or  as  a  large  kingdom 
made  up  of  an  enormous  aggregate  of  minute  depend- 
encies, each  of  which  is  endowed  with  more  or  less 
power  of  self-government — these  dependencies  being 
invariably  constituted  by  definite  morphological  units 
known  as  cells,  though  there  may  or  may  not  be  in- 
cluded under  the  sway  of  each  a  certain  outlying 
c  cell  territory/  Such  is  the  essence  of  Virchow's 
doctrine. 

Before  proceeding  further,  however,  it  will  be  well 
to  point  out  that  important  modifications  had  been 
growing  up,  even  before  the  publication  of  Virchow's 
theories,  as  to  the  true  conception  of  the  nature  of  a 
cell.  So  far  the  cell  has  been  spoken  of  as  an  alto- 
gether definite  structure — as  a  body  with  a  distinct  wall 
or  bounding  membrane  and  also  certain  contents,  which 
include  amongst  other  things  one  of  the  most  funda- 
mental parts  of  the  cell,  the  nucleus — which  again 
may  contain  a  nucleolus.  But  it  was  maintained  by 
Naegeli *,  and  also  by  Alexander  Braun  2,  and  then  more 


1  'Zeitschrift   ffir  Wissen.  Botanik,'  1846  (Transln.  Ray  Soc.  1849, 
P-  95). 

2  'The   Phenomena  of  Rejuvenescence  in  Nature,'  1851    (Transln. 
Ray  Soc.  1853). 


150  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

emphatically  declared  by  Max  Schultze  *,  that  a  distinct 
investing  membrane  or  cell-wall  was  not  an  essential 
character :  afterwards  the  typical  ceil  was  still  further 
shorn  of  its  characteristics  when  it  was  shown  (if 
this  had  not  been  already  done  by  Naegeli  and  Braun) 
by  Briicke 2,  Kiihne  3,  and  others,  that  even  the  nucleus 
was  a  non-essential  constituent  of  that  body,  which 
was  formerly  thought  to  represent  not  only  the  morpho- 
logical, but  also  the  vital  unit.  So  that,  in  place  of 
the  old  ccelP  with  its  definite  characters,  this  would 
reduce  us  to  a  mere  naked,  non-nucleated  bit  of  pro- 
toplasm as  the  simplest  material  substratum  adequate 
to  display  all  those  vital  manifestations  which  were 
previously  considered  as  the  essential  attributes  of  cer- 
tain formed  elements  known  as  c  cells.'  The  power 
of  displaying  vital  manifestations  was,  in  fact,  trans- 


1  'Reichert  und  Du  Bois  Reymond's  Archiv,'  1861.     A  mere  mass  of 
protoplasm  with  a  nucleus  was  sufficient  to  constitute  a  '  cell ; '  and  at 
the  same  time  it  was  maintained  that  the  substance  of  the  cell  (or  that 
within  the  wall,  where  this  existed)  was  protoplasm,  a  contractile  sub- 
stance answering   to  what  Dujardin  had  named  sarcode.     These  later 
modifications  are,  however,  by  no  means  antagonistic  to  the  notions  of 
Schwann  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  passages : — '  There  is 
no  contradiction  involved  in  the  supposition  that  a  nucleus  may  be 
contained  in  a  solid  globule  as  well  as  in  a  cell.  .  .  .  A  given  object  may 
really  be  a  cell  when  even  the  common  characteristics  of  that  structure , 
namely  the  perceptibility  of  the  cell  membrane,  and  the  flowing  out  of 
the  cell  contents,  cannot  be  brought  under  observation.  .  .  .  The  most 
important  and  abundant  proof  as  to  the  existence  of  a  cell  is  the  pre- 
sence or  absence  of  the  nucleus.' — Loc.  cit.  p.  37. 

2  'Wiener  Sitzungsberichte,'  1861,  pp.  18-22. 

3  'Protoplasma  und  die  Contractilitat.'     Leipzig,  1864. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  151 

ferred  from  definitely  formed  morphological  units  to 
utterly  indefinite  and  formless  masses  of  what  is  called 
protoplasm.  Instead  therefore  of  an  obvious  form  of  Life, 
we  are  reduced  to  a  matter  of  Life,  presenting  no  appre- 
ciable morphological  characters.  It  becomes  evident, 
moreover,  that  if  the  old  term  c  cell'  is  now  applied  to 
these  bits  of  living  stuff  or  protoplasm  (simply  because 
biologists  have  been  compelled  to  transfer  the  power  of 
manifesting  vital  properties  to  such  masses,  instead 
of  restricting  this  power  to  definitely  formed  morpho- 
logical units)  the  term  must,  nevertheless,  have  entirely 
lost  its  old  signification,  and  can  be  regarded  in  no 
other  way  than  as  a  mere  courtesy  title  when  so  em- 
ployed. Vital  power  has  obviously  been  transferred 
from  a  morphological  unit  (the  cell)  to  mere  formless 
living  matter,  and  if  some  persist  in  calling  a  portion 
of  such  mere  matter  by  the  name  of  the  morphological 
unit,  simply  because  this  was  of  old  also  assumed  to  be 
the  ultimate  vital  unit,  we  must  not  allow  our  minds 
to  be  confused  by  such  use  of  the  word 1. 

In  order  to  prevent  this,  a  new  term  must  be  intro- 
duced, and  the  old  term  must  lose  something  of  its 
definiteness:  it  must,  at  the  same  time,  renounce 
for  ever  one  of  the  characteristics  with  which  many 
have  credited  it.  In  accordance  with  the  views  above 
expressed,  the  ccell,'  even  in  its  modern  sense— the 
mass  of  protoplasm  containing  a  nucleus — cannot  be 
regarded  as  the  ultimate  vital  unit.  It  is  also  less 

1  See  Hutchison  Stirling's  '  As  regards  Protoplasm,'  &c.,  1869,  p.  16. 


152 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


definite  in  its  morphological  characters,  since  it  is  now 
acknowledged  that  the  cell  may  or  may  not  be  enclosed 
by  a  membrane  or  cell-wall.  For  the  structureless  mass 
of  protoplasm — the  mere  bit  of  plasma,  or  living  matter 
— in  which  no  inner  differentiation  has  yet  taken  place, 
we  cannot  do  better  than  adopt  HaeckeFs1  term  cplastide.y 
The  plastide,  like  the  cell,  may  vary  much  in  size :  it, 
also,  may  be  either  naked  or  bounded  by  a  membrane. 

The  old  doctrine  as  to  the  fundamental  properties  of 
the  c  cell'  as  a  vital  unit,  did  well  enough  in  those  days 
when  the  lowest  known  living  things — the  lowest  plants 
and  the  lowest  animals — were  thought  to  be  c  unicellular 


FIG.  5. 

4  Unicellular  Organisms.' 
a,  b,  c.  Three  of  the  higher  Amoebae,     f.    One   of  the  most   minute  and 


a.  Nuclearia  simplex. 

b.  Amoeba  Limax. 

c.  Amceba  guthtla. 

d  and  e.  Gregarina  Sipunculi. 


simple  of  the  unicellular  Al- 
gae— Hematococcus  ceruginosus. 
g.  The   '  red   snow '  Alga — Proto- 
coccus  nivalis. 


1  'Journal  of  Microsc.  Science,'  1869,  vol.  ix.  p.  332. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  153 

organisms,'  closely  approximating  in  their  characters  to 
the  morphological  units  of  which  the  higher  plants  and 
animals  were  compounded.  But,  since  our  knowledge 
has  increased,  since  we  have  become  more  familiar 
with  the  various  living  things  which  now  constitute 
the  lowest  groups  of  the  third  organic  kingdom — PRO- 
TISTA— the  maintenance  of  such  doctrines  (leaving 
aside  all  other  reasons)  has  become  impossible.  Have 
we  not  seen  that  although  the  Protoplasta  are  amoe- 
boid animals,  possessing  the  old  cell  characters — that 
is,  having  a  distinct  nucleus  and  a  definite  bounding 
membrane  —  there  are,  nevertheless,  adult  animals 
entering  into  the  composition  of  the  lowest  group 
Monera,  some  of  which  have  no  bounding  membrane 
though  they  have  a  nucleus,  whilst  others,  simpler 
still,  are  mere  bits  of  protoplasm,  naked,  non-nucle- 
ated, structureless?  Yet,  such  minute,  homogeneous, 
and  altogether  indefinite  bits  of  protoplasm,  are  as 
capable  of  displaying  the  fundamental -characteristics  of 
Life  as  are  the  more  definite  unicellular  organisms,  to 
which  such  attributes  were  previously  supposed  to  be 
restricted.  Without  visible  structure  they  nevertheless 
assimilate  materials  from  their  environment,  and  grow. 
They  constantly  vary  their  form,  and  are  capable  of 
executing  slow  movements.  Though  possessing  no 
nucleus,  they,  nevertheless,  are  able  to  divide  and 
reproduce  their  kind. 

Dr.  Lionel  Beale,  whilst  admitting  the  existence  of 
a  morphological  unit  answering  to  the  cell  of  other 


154  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

observers,  which  is  found  to  enter  largely  into  the  com- 
position of  many  of  the  tissues  of  the  body,  denies  that 
anything  to  which  the  ordinary  definition  of  a  cell  would 
be  applicable  can  be  said  to  constitute  the  elementary 
part  of  many  tissues.  He  says1: — cWe  may,  how- 
ever, use  this  term,  which  is  very  short  and  conve- 
nient, if  we  give  it  a  more  general  meaning.  I  would 
venture  to  describe  the  cell  or  elementary  part  as  a 
structure  always  consisting  of  matter  in  two  states, 
forming  and  formed^  or  germinal  matter  and  formed 
material.  The  first  or  active  substance  is  surrounded 
and  protected  by  the  outer  passive  matter,  through 
which  all  the  pabulum  to  be  converted  into  ger- 
minal matter  must  pass/  Looking  therefore  upon  the 
central  portion  (corresponding  to  nucleus  and  part 
of  cell  contents)  as  the  living  part  or  germinal  matter, 
in  which  the  active  powers  of  grov/th  reside,  and  by 
the  division  of  which  new  germinal  centres  are  pro- 
duced; he  regards  the  peripheral  portion  (correspond- 
ing to  the  outer  part  of  cell  contents,  the  cell-wall  and 
the  intercellular  substance  of  most  other  writers)  as  dead 
matter,  incapable  of  undergoing  any  further  changes 
that  may  be  called  vital.  The  outermost  layers  of 
germinal  matter  are  supposed  to  be  continually  losing 
their  peculiar  powers,  and  passing  into  formed  mate- 
rial ;  whilst  the  new  materials  of  growth  penetrate  to 
the  very  centre  of  the  germinal  mass,  where  all  the 

1  'Structure  and   Growth   of  Tissues,'   'Journal    of    Microscopical 
Science,'  1861,  p.  62. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  155 

vital  processes  are  thought  to  be  in  their  greatest  acti- 
vity. Further  changes  in  the  formed  (or  dead)  material, 
result,  in  some  cases,  in  the  formation  of  the  various 
secretions,  and  in  others,  in  the  production  of  the  cha- 
racteristic parts  of  such  tissues  as  muscle  and  nerve. 

We  now  know,  however,  that  the  simplest  living 
things  present  no  such  distinction  of  parts  as  those 
to  which  Dr.  Beale  alludes;  and  it  has  always  ap- 
peared to  me  to  be  a  very  fundamental  objection  to  his 
theory  that  so  many  of  the  most  characteristically  vital 
phenomena  of  the  higher  animals  should  take  place 
through  the  agency  of  tissues — muscle  and  nerve  for 
instance — by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  bulk  of  which 
would,  in  accordance  with  Dr.  Beale's  view,  have  to  be 
considered  as  dead^  and  inert.  Dr.  Beale  has  quite  re- 
cently said  l : — c  The  contractile  material  of  muscle 
may  be  shown  to  be  continuous  with  the  germinal 
matter,  and  oftentimes  a  thin  filament  of  the  trans- 
versely striated  tissue  may  be  detached  with  the  oval 
mass  of  germinal  matter  still  connected  with  it,  show- 
ing that,  as  in  tendon,  the  germinal  matter  passes  un- 
interruptedly into  the  formed  material.  This  con- 
tractile tissue  is  not,  like  the  germinal  matter  which 
produced  it,  in  a  living  state.  In  the  formation  of  the 
contractile  tissue  the  germinal  matter  seems  to  move 
onwards,  and  at  its  posterior  part  gradually  undergoes 
conversion  into  the  tissue.  At  the  same  time  it  absorbs 
nutrient  material,  and  thus,  although  a  vast  amount 
1  'Protoplasm,'  2nd  edition,  1870,  p.  54. 


156  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

of  contractile  tissue  may  have  been  produced,  the  ger- 
minal matter  which  formed  it  may  not  have  altered  in 
bulk/  Then,  concerning  the  nature  and  mode  of  for- 
mation of  nerve  fibres,  Dr.  Beale  says : — c  The  nerve 
fibre  is  composed  of  formed  material,  which  is  structu- 
rally continuous  with  the  formed  material  of  the  nerve 
cells  of  the  nerve  centres.  A  nerve  fibre  at  an  early 
period  of  development  consists  of  a  number  of  oval 
masses  of  germinal  matter  linearly  arranged.  As  deve- 
lopment proceeds,  these  become  separated  farther  and 
farther  from  one  another,  and  the  non-living  tissue 
which  is  thus  spun  off  as  they  become  separated,  is  the 
nerve.' 

Dr.  Beale's  dictum  that  the  matter  which  he  calls 
'  formed  material 3  is  dead,  we  regard  as  a  singularly 
foundationless  hypothesis,  the  maintenance  of  which  is 
beset  with  difficulties.  If  muscles  and  nerves  perform 
work,  such  functional  activity  must  be  attended  by 
tissue  changes  in  their  very  substance.  How  then  is 
repair  to  be  effected  ?  Not  after  the  fashion  in  which 
living  tissues  are  renovated,  for  these,  according  to 
Dr.  Beale,  are  dead,  and  therefore  cannot  be  amenable 
to  the  laws  which  govern  the  repair  of  living  structures. 
I  have  no  faith,  however,  in  the  ability  of  carmine  to 
discriminate  the  not-living  from  the  Living,  and  can 
only  state  my  total  inability  to  accept  the  opinion  of 
Dr.  Beale  when  he  says : — c  The  difference  between 
germinal  or  living  matter  and  the  pabulum  which 
nourishes  it,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  formed  material 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  157 

which  is  produced  by  it,  on  the  other,  is,  I  believe, 
absolute.  The  pabulum  does  not  shade  by  impercept- 
ible gradations  into  the  living  matter,  and  this  latter 
into  the  formed  material,  but  the  passage  from  one 
state  into  the  other  is  sudden  and  abrupt,  although 
there  may  be  much  living  matter  mixed  with  little  life- 
less matter,  or  'vice  versa.  The  ultimate  particles  of 
matter  pass  from  the  lifeless  into  the  living  state,  and 
from  the  latter  into  the  dead  state,  suddenly.  Matter 
cannot  be  said  to  half-live  or  half-die.  It  is  either 
dead  or  living,  animate  or  Inanimate ,  and  formed  matter 
has  ceased  to  live.'  We  do  not  wonder  that  any  one 
who  could  hold  such  a  doctrine  as  this  should  exhibit 
so  much  antagonism  towards  the  Evolution  Hypo- 
thesis. But  how  such  marvellously  abrupt  transitions 
are  brought  about  we  are  not  toldj  and  Dr.  Beale, 
moreover,  forgets  to  mention  upon  what  evidence  he 
feels  himself  entitled  to  make  such  positive  and  start- 
ling assertions. 

To  a  certain  extent,  however,  we  find  there  is  an 
agreement  between  Dr.  Beale's  doctrine  and  that  of 
other  excellent  observers.  He  says  * :  — c  However 
much  organisms  and  tissues  in  their  fully  formed 
state  may  vary  as  regards  the  character,  properties,  and 
composition  of  the  formed  material,  all  were  first  in 
the  condition  of  clear,  transparent,  structureless,  form- 
less living  matter.'  Surely,  however,  he  is  uttering 
something  quite  contradictory  when  he  says,  in  effect 
1  Loc.  cit.  p.  48. 


158  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

previously,  and  also  subsequently1  in  actual  words: — 'All 
that  is  essential  to  the  cell  or  elementary  part  is  matter 
that  is  in  the  living  state — germinal  matter^  and  matter 
that  has  been  in  the  living  state — formed  material?  Such 
c  formed  material'  as  Dr.  Beale  here  speaks  of  may 
be  necessary  in  order  to  support  certain  theories,  but  it 
does  not  actually  exist  in  the  simplest  living  things  or 
elemental  living  parts — these  are,  as  he  has  himself 
frequently  stated,  perfectly  structureless2. 

But  even  so  far  back  as  1853,  before  the  doctrine 
as  to  the  constitution  of  the  c  cell'  had  undergone  these 
modifications — or  rather,  as  we  should  more  strictly  say, 
before  it  had  been  generally  acknowledged  that  vital 
manifestations  could  be  displayed  by  mere  bits  of 
protoplasm  lacking  this  form  hitherto  supposed  ne- 
cessary— Professor  Huxley  had  put  forth3  a  powerful 
remonstrance  against  the  then  all-prevalent  c  cellular 
theory '  of  organization.  His  opinions  were  announced 
even  five  years  before  Virchow,  the  last  great  champion 
of  the  old  doctrine,  issued  his  celebrated  c  Cellular  Patho- 
logic.' Following  in  the  main  the  doctrines  of  Wolff 
and  Von  Baer,  Professor  Huxley  contended  that  the 
primitive  organic  substance  is  a  homogeneous  plasma 

1  Idem,  p.  55. 

2  If  the  reader  chooses  to  consult  Dr.  Beale's  work  on  '  Protoplasm,' 
it  will  be  found— in  accordance  with  fact  rather  than  theory — that  the 
figures   of  living   things   and  elementary  parts  there  given  in  PL  II, 
especially  figs.  3,  5,  and  6,  represent  only  homogeneous  living  matter, 
with  no  trace  of  formed  material  externally.     Dr.  Beale's  accuracy  as  an 
observer  is  thoroughly  well  known. 

3  See  '  British  and  Foreign  Medical  Chirurgical  Review,'  1853,  P-  3°^- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  1 59 

in  which  a  certain  differentiation  takes  place,  but  that 
there  is  no  evidence  whatever  to  show  that  the  mole- 
cular forces  of  this  living  matter  (the  c  vital  forces'  of 
most  modern  writers)  are  by  this  differentiation  local- 
ized in  any  one  part  more  than  in  any  other  part — 
be  it  cell  or  be  it  intercellular  tissue.  c  Neither  is 
there  any  evidence/  he  says,  c  that  any  attraction  or 
other  influence  is  exercised  by  the  one  over  the  other ; 
the  changes  which  each  subsequently  undergoes,  though 
they  are  in  harmony,  having  no  causal  connection  with 
one  another,  but  each  proceeding,  as  it  would  seem, 
in  accordance  with  the  general  determining  laws  of 
the  organism.'  Whilst  believing  that  the  periplast — 
corresponding  with  the  cell-wall  and  intercellular  tissue 
of  other  writers — is  the  seat  of  all  the  most  important/ 
metamorphic  processes,  out  of  which  the  various  tissues 
are  produced,  he  also  believes  that  this  differentiation 
is  not  brought  about  by  any  mysterious  action  on  the 
part  of  the  cell  or  nucleus — that  it  is  rather  a  result 
of  intimate  molecular  changes  taking  place  in  the  plastic 
matter  itself  after  a  definitely  successive,  though  in- 
explicable fashion.  The  fundamental  position  of  Pro- 
fessor Huxley  is,  in  fact,  that  the  c  primary  differentia- 
tion is  not  a  necessary  preliminary  to  further  organi- 
zation— that  the  cells  are  not  machines  by  which  alone 
further  development  can  take  place,'  they  are  rather 
mere  indications  of  accustomed  modes  of  evolution. 
This  view  he  has  further  illustrated  as  follows: — 
c  We  have  tried  to  show,'  he  says,  c  that  they  are  not 


160  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

instruments  but  indications — that  they  are  no  more 
the  producers  of  the  vital  phenomena,  than  the  shells 
scattered  m  orderly  lines  along  the  sea-beach  are  the 
instruments  by  which  the  gravitative  force  of  the  moon 
acts  upon  the  ocean.  Like  these,  the  cell  marks  only 
where  the  vital  tides  have  been,  and  how  they  have 
acted/ 

Professor  Huxley's  doctrine  must  be  distinguished 
from  another  put  forward  by  Dr.  Hughes  Bennett  shortly 
afterwards  \  and  then  more  fully  in  the  (  Proceedings 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,'  in  1861.  This  is 
more  especially  known  as  c  The  Molecular  Theory  of 
Organization.'  ( The  first  step/  Professor  Bennett  says, 
c  in  the  process  of  organic  formation,  is  the  production 
of  an  organic  fluid ;  the  second,  the  precipitation  in  it 
of  organic  molecules,  from  which,  according  to  the 
molecular  law  of  growth,  all  other  textures  are  derived 
either  directly  or  indirectly.'  So  that  cthe  ultimate 
parts  of  the  organism  are  not  cells  nor  nuclei,  but  the 
minute  molecules  from  which  these  are  formed.  They 
possess  independent  physical  and  vital  properties,  which 
enable  them  to  unite  and  arrange  themselves  so  as  to 
produce  higher  forms.  Among  these  are  nuclei,  cells, 
fibres,  and  membranes,  all  of  which  may  be  produced 
directly  from  molecules.  The  development  and  growth 
of  organic  tissues  is  owing  to  the  successive  formation 
of  histogenetic  and  histolytic  molecules.  The  breaking 

1  '  Report  of  the  British  Association,'  1855,  p.  119. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  161 

down  of  one  substance  is  often  the  necessary  step  to 
the  formation  of  another :  so  that  the  histolytic  or  dis- 
integrative  molecules  of  one  period  become  the  histo- 
genetic  or  formative  molecules  of  another1.'  The  theory 
of  organization  advocated  by  Prof.  Huxley  and  others  is 
c  molecular'  from  a  functional  point  of  view,  whilst 
this  of  Dr.  Hughes  Bennett  bears  principally  upon  the 
developmental  and  structural  aspects  of  the  doctrine2, 
although  he  also  distinctly  teaches  that  the  vital  forces 
are  dependent  upon  molecules  and  not  upon  cells. 
Speaking  of  his  general  doctrine,  Dr.  Bennett  says : — 
c  The  molecular,  therefore,  is  in  no  way  opposed  to  a 
true  cell  theory  of  growth,  but  constitutes  a  wider 
generalization,  and  a  broader  basis  for  its  operations. 
Neither  does  it  give  any  countenance  to  the  doctrine  of 
equivocal  or  spontaneous  generation  3.'  It  can  scarcely 
be  said  that  Dr.  Bennett  has  succeeded  in  convincing 

1  Lectures  '  On  Molecular  Physiology,'  &c.,  '  Lancet,'  1863  (v°l-  *•)» 
p.  56. 

2  A  doctrine  of  this  kind  had  been  previously  hinted  at  by  Pineau  in 
1848  (' Annal.  des  Sciences  Naturelles '),  when  he  expressed  his  belief 
that  the  primary  phenomenon  in  the  development  not  only  of  cells, 
animal  and  vegetable,  but  also  of  Infusoria,  consisted  '  essentiellement 
en  une  agglomeration  des   granules.'     He  described   observations  by 
which  he  had  satisfied  himself  that  such  a  mode  of  formation  occurred 
in  the  origin  of  certain  Infusoria,  and  also  in  the  formation  of  the  spores 
of  certain  Lichens.    According  to  Virchow  (loc.  cit.  p.  26),  Baumgartner 
and  Arnold  had  also  expressed  their  belief  in  a  similar  mode  of  origin  of 
tissue  elements. 

3  Lectures  in  'Lancet,'  1863,  p.  4.     Lately,  however  ('Pop.  Science 
Review,'  Jan.,  1869),  Dr.  Hughes  Bennett  has  proclaimed  his  firm 
belief  in  the  doctrine  of  '  Spontaneous  Generation.' 

M 


1 62  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

physiologists  as  to  the  truth  of  his  doctrines  so  far  as 
they  bear  upon  structure  and  development,  although 
they  are  undoubtedly  true  in  several  important  respects. 

Now  the  essence  of  the  doctrine  propounded  by 
Prof.  Huxley,  and  in  this  respect  also  by  Dr.  Hughes 
Bennett,  is  that  the  vital  forces  are  c  molecular  forces/ 
that  they  are  not  dependent  upon  morphological  forms 
or  c  cells/  and  therefore,  that  essentially  vital  mani- 
festations may  take  place  in  mere  formless  living 
matter1.  But,  as  we  have  just  seen,  this  is  precisely 
the  doctrine  to  which  so  many  other  distinguished  bi- 
ologists have  now  given  in  their  adhesion.  They  too 
— Max  Schultze,  Haeckel,  Kiihne,  and  others  —  have 
gradually  recognized  that  a  something  of  definite  form 
is  no  longer  necessary  —  that  there  are  independent 
living  things  even  lower  in  the  scale  than  the  old  uni- 
cellular organisms,  and  that  whether  to  constitute  one 
of  these  or  to  constitute  a  functional  unit  of  a  higher 
organism,  all  that  is  needed  is  mere  indefinite  formless 
protoplasm — a  mere  c  shred'  of  the  matter  of  Life  2. 

This  then  being  the  theory  to  which  our  most  ac- 
complished microscopists  and  physiologists  have  ar- 
rived, it  will  be  interesting  for  us  to  see  how  such  a 
conclusion  harmonizes  with  the  hypothesis  of  Evolu- 


1  This  is  the  logical  outcome  also  of  the  doctrine  of  Schwann,  since 
he  so  distinctly  maintained  that,  '  The  formation  of  cells  bears  the  same 
relation  to  organic  nature,  that  crystallization  does  to  inorganic.' 

2  See  Mr.  Stirling's  pamphlet,  '  As  regards  Protoplasm  in  relation  to 
Professor  Huxley's  Essay  on  the  Physical  Basis  of  Life,'  1869,  p.  16. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  163 

tion.  We  cannot  do  better  than  quote  what  Mr.  Her- 
bert Spencer  writes  on  this  subject  in  his  c  Principles  of 
Biology/  cWe  set  out  with  molecules1/  he  says,  cone 
degree  higher  in  complexity  than  those  molecules  of 
nitrogenous  colloidal  substance  into  which  organic 
matter  is  resolvable;  and  we  regard  these  somewhat 
more  complex  molecules  as  having  the  implied  greater 
instability,  greater  sensitiveness  to  surrounding  in- 
fluences, and  consequent  greater  mobility  of  form. 
Such  being  the  primitive  physiological  units,  organic 
evolution  must  begin  with  the  formation  of  a  minute 
aggregation  of  them — an  aggregate  showing  vitality  only 
by  a  higher  degree  of  that  readiness  to  change  its  form  of 
aggregation  which  colloidal  matter  in  general  displays  $  and 
by  its  ability  to  unite  the  nitrogenous  molecules  it  meets 
with,  into  complex  molecules  like  those  of  which  it  is 
composed.  Obviously  the  earliest  forms  must  have 
been  minute ;  since  in  the  absence  of  any  but  diffused 
organic  matter,  no  form  but  a  minute  one  could  find 
nutriment.  Obviously,  too,  it  must  have  been  struc- 
tureless; since  as  differentiations  are  producible  only 
by  the  unlike  actions  of  incident  forces,  there  could 
have  been  no  differentiations  before  such  forces  had 
had  time  to  work.  Hence  distinctions  of  parts  like 
those  required  to  constitute  a  cell  were  necessarily 

1  Mr.  Spencer  here  refers  to  chemical  molecules  of  a  very  complex 
nature,  and  not  to  minute  visible  granules.  For  an  account  of  these 
complex  molecules  or  'physiological  units'  see  '  Prin.  of  Biol.'  vol.  i. 
p.  182. 

M   2, 


164  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

absent  at  first.  And  we  need  not  therefore  be  surprised 
to  find,  as  we  do  find,  specks  of  protoplasm  manifesting 
life  and  yet  showing  no  signs  of  organization1.5 

But  if,  then,  mere  c  cellular  *  form  is  so  non-essential 
for  the  display  of  vital  manifestations,  how,  it  may  be 
asked,  is  its  frequent  recurrence  throughout  the  tissues 
of  plants  and  animals  to  be  explained 2  ?  We  can  only 
make  more  or  less  probable  surmises  in  reply  to  this 
question.  We  must  imagine,  in  the  first  place,  that 
the  telluric  conditions  acting  upon  plastic  organizable 
matter  are  such  as  to  be  especially  favourable  for  the 
evolution  of  this  particular  organic  form.  The  very 
interesting  experiments  of  Mr.  Rainey,  as  well  as 
those  of  Dr.  Montgomery,  have  indeed  already  shown 
that  non-living  semi-fluid  matter,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, is  especially  prone  to  assume  such  shapes. 
Thus  the  action  of  environing  conditions,  combined 


1  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  u. 

2  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  a  cellular  structure  is  more  prevalent 
than  is  really  the  case.     Nothing  of  the  kind  exists,  as  we  have  seen,  in 
many  Amoebae,  and  likewise  in  the  Foraminifera.     No  true  cells  can  be 
said  to  be  present  in  Diatoms  or  Desmids,  and  from  what  the  Rev. 
M.  J.  Berkeley  tells  us  there  are  what  may  be  considered  non-cellular 
Algae  and  Fungi.      Speaking  of  these  plants,  he  says  ('  Introduction  to 
Crypt.  Botany,'  p.  248) : — '  The  cellular  tissue  varies  in  almost  every  con- 
ceivable way,  both  as  regards  form  and  composition.  .  Cells  occur  per- 
fectly globose,  and  almost  extremely  elongated  and  attenuated ;  and  in 
some  instances,  as  in  Vaucberia  (Fig.  22),  not  a  single  dissepiment  is 
formed  (Fig.  23)  from  the  first  germination  of  the  spore  till  impreg- 
nation ;  so  that  the  whole  plant  is  a  single  ramified  cell  whose  apices 
fall  off  and  reproduce  the  species.'    Many  other  Algae  agree  with  Vau- 
cberia in  presenting  no  trace  of  a  cellular  structure. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  165 

with  the  inherent  tendencies  of  the  lowest  living 
things,  would  predispose  towards  their  evolution  into 
unicellular  organisms  —  both  animal  and  vegetable. 
And  similar  determining  causes  might  be  presumed 
to  be  in  part  operative  in  the  production  of  those 
higher  organisms  which  are  composed  of  variously 
arranged  aggregates  of  such  morphological  units.  But 
we  must  not  forget,  as  Mr.  Spencer  reminds  us,  that 
from  the  Law  of  Heredity,  considered  as  extending  to 
the  entire  succession  of  large  groups  of  living  things 
on  the  surface  of  our  globe,  during  its  whole  past 
history,  c  it  follows  that  since  the  formation  of  these 
small  simple  organisms  must  have  preceded  the  for- 
mation of  larger  and  more  complex  organisms,  the 
larger  and  more  complex  organisms  must  inherit  their 
essential  characters.  We  may  anticipate/  Mr.  Spencer 
continues,  c  that  the  multiplication  and  combination  of 
these  minute  aggregates  or  cells  will  be  conspicuous 
in  the  early  developmental  stages  of  plants  and  animals; 
and  that  throughout  all  subsequent  stages,  cell-produc- 
tion and  cell-differentiation  will  be  dominant  charac- 
teristics. The  physiological  units  peculiar  to  each 
higher  species  will,  speaking  generally,  pass  through 
this  form  of  aggregation  on  their  way  towards  the 
final  arrangement  they  are  to  assume;  because  those 
primordial  physiological  units  from  which  they  are 
remotely  descended,  aggregated  into  this  form.  And 
yet,  just  as  in  other  cases  we  found  reason  for  in- 
ferring (§  131)  that  the  traits  of  ancestral  organization 


1 66  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

may,  under  certain  conditions,  be  partially  or  wholly 
obliterated,  and  the  ultimate  structure  assumed  without 
passing  through  them,  so  here  it  is  to  be  inferred  that 
the  process  of  cell  formation  may,  in  some  cases,  be 
passed  over.  Thus  the  hypothesis  of  evolution  prepares 
us  for  these  two  radical  modifications  of  the  cell  doc- 
trine which  the  facts  oblige  us  to  make.  It  leads  us  to 
expect,  that  as  structureless  portions  of  protoplasm 
must  have  preceded  cells  in  the  process  of  general 
evolution,  so  in  the  special  evolution  of  each  higher 
organism  there  will  be  an  habitual  production  of  cells  out 
of  structureless  blastema.  And  it  leads  us  to  expect,  that 
though  generally  the  physiological  units  composing  a 
structureless  blastema  will  display  their  inherited  pro- 
clivities by  cell  development  and  metamorphosis ;  there 
will  nevertheless  occur  cases  in  which  the  tissue  to 
be  formed  is  formed  by  direct  transformation  of  the 
blastema1/ 

Fully  admitting,  therefore,  that  the  c  cell '  is  a 
most  important  structure,  that  it  is  a  kind  of  'whole 
having  in  complex  organisms  a  subordinate  individu- 
ality of  its  own,  that  cells  do  frequently  multiply  by 
division  of  pre-existing  cells,  that  they  are  in  fact 
morphological  units,  which  by  their  uniformity  of  struc- 
ture and  wide-spread  diffusion  throughout  the  tissues 
of  both  plants  and  animals  may  well  claim  to  be  the 
morphological  units — still,  we  must  not,  on  this  ac- 
count, endow  them  with  an  undue  importance.  We  have 

1  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  12. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  167 

seen  how  strongly  many  of  our  leading  physiologists 
and  zoologists  are  in  favour  of  the  view  that  such  a 
definite  form  is  no  longer  necessary  for  the  display  of 
vital  manifestations — nay,  it  is  a  view  which  they 
cannot  do  other  than  hold,  now  it  has  become  a  matter 
of  absolute  knowledge  that  the  lowest  living  things — 
far  from  being  unicellular  organisms — are  mere  bits  of 
protoplasm,  devoid  of  nucleus,  devoid  of  cell-wall, 
Proteus-like,  changing  in  outline  from  moment  to 
moment.  Whilst,  therefore,  fully  alive  to  the  great 
service  which  Virchow  has  done  to  the  cause  of  pa- 
thology, by  calling  attention  so  forcibly  to  the  import- 
ance of  a  consideration  of  the  inherent  activities  of 
the  tissue  elements  as  factors  in  the  nutritive  processes, 
whether  healthy  or  morbid,  we  believe,  nevertheless, 
that  he  has  pushed  his  doctrines  to  a  perilous  and 
erroneous  extreme.  We  feel  it  impossible — and  per- 
chance he  would  now  do  the  same — to  admit  that 
c  the  cell  is  really  the  ultimate  morphological  unit 
in  which  there  is  any  manifestation  of  life,  and  that 
we  must  not  transfer  the  seat  of  real  action  to  any 
point  beyond  the  cell.'  Then,  too,  the  accumulated 
weight  of  other  evidence,  of  various  kinds,  makes 
it  impossible  for  us  to  agree  with  him  in  regard  to 
the  doctrine  that  cells  can  only  originate  from  division 
or  endogenous  multiplication  of  pre-existing  cells,  that 
they  can  never  be  evolved  de  now  out  of  homogeneous 
blastemata1.  Virchow's  doctrine  on  this  subject  is — 
1  '  Cellular  Pathology/  p.  27. 


1 68  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

c  Where  a  cell  arises,  there  a  cell  must  have  pre- 
viously existed  (omnis  cellula  e  cellula),  just  as  an  animal 
can  spring  only  from  an  animal,  a  plant  only  from  a 
plant.'  To  what  extent  this  is  true  we  have  now  to 
enquire. 


CHAPTER  V. 

MODES   OF    ORIGIN    OF   REPRODUCTIVE   UNITS   AND    OF    CELLS. 

Modes  of  origin  of  reproductive  units.  Development  of  '  zoospores '  in 
Conferva  area.  Evolution  of  ciliated  spore  in  Vaucberia.  Forma- 
tion of  '  resting  spore '  in  CEdogonium.  Development  of  spores 
in  Acblya  prolifera;  rapidity  of  process.  Similar  mode  of  for- 
mation in  other  Fungi,  and  in  Lichens.  Mode  of  origin  of  Nuclei. 
Formation  of  Cells  within  the  internodes  of  Cbaracece.  Develop- 
ment of  ovule,  and  of  endosperm  cells,  in  Flowering  Plants. 
Mode  of  origin  of  germs  in  Protomyxa,  and  in  higher  Amoebae. 
Formation  of  ova  in  lower  Animals.  No  doubt  about  mode  of 
formation  of  yelk-mass  and  vitelline  membrane  in  Nematoids.  Mode 
of  origin  of  ova  in  higher  Animals.  Origin  of  Spermatozoa, 
antherozoids,  and  pollen  grains. 

Above  evidence  shows  that  independent  Living  Units  are  at  first  form- 
less. The  Cell  a  product  of  Evolution.  Non-essential  nature  of 
nucleus  and  cell-wall.  Virchow's  hypothesis  untenable.  Most 
necessary  to  consider  properties  of  Living  Matter. 

Origin  of  Living  Units,  as  specks  of  protoplasm,  in  blastemata.  Ex- 
periments of  Onimus.  Observations  on  mode  of  origin  of  white 
blood  corpuscles.  Another  mode  in  which  Cells  originate.  Five 
fundamental  modes  by  which  independent  Living  Units  are 
produced.  Can  a  fluid  live?  Comparison  between  the  Growth 
and  Genesis  of  Living  Matter.  Theoretical  indications  not  adverse 
to  Archebiosis. 

THE  mere  form,  therefore,  of  living  things,  or  of 
the  active  elemental  parts  of  higher  organisms, 
has  lost  its  importance.     Vital  manifestations  are  now 
known  not  to  be  dependent  upon  visible  organization 
of  any  kind ;  they  are  the  results  of  peculiar  molecular 


170  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

aggregations:  visible  organization  is,  in  fact,  a  result 
rather  than  a  cause  of  Life  and  living  action.  The 
cell  is  not  the  ultimate  unit,  without  which  the  pheno- 
mena of  Life  are  unable  to  occur.  It  is  itself  the  pro- 
duct, immediate  or  remote,  of  an  antecedent  evolution. 
Life  is  dependent  upon  matter  of  particular  kinds,  and 
results  from  the  aggregated  and  interdependent  play  of 
the  molecular  forces  pertaining  to  such  matter,  in  an 
organism.  The  old  and  much  disputed  problem,  there- 
fore, as  to  whether  cells  can  originate,  independently 
of  pre-existing  cells,  in  homogeneous  fluids  or  blas- 
temata  within  the  body,  may  and  must  be  resolved 
into  the  still  simpler  question,  Whether  mere  minute, 
almost  microscopically  invisible,  specks  of  protoplasm 
(plastides),  which  are  able  to  develope  into  definite  ccell' 
forms,  can  originate  in  such  fluids  ?  With  the  view  of 
throwing  light  upon  the  subject,  we  may  call  attention 
to  some  facts  which,  though  familiar  to  very  many,  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  adequately  appreciated  in  their 
bearing  upon  this  question. 

We  will  first  enquire  into  the  mode  of  origin  of  the 
most  important  of  all  living  units — of  those  which  are 
destined  to  perpetuate  the  species.  And,  having  done 
so,  we  must  test  the  facts  thus  ascertained  not  by 
the  old  notions  concerning  the  ( cell,'  but  by  the  new 
facts  and  views  concerning  the  powers  of  mere  formless 
living  matter,  which  the  present  state  of  biological 
science  compels  us  to  accept. 

The  reproductive  units  of  Algae,  which,  after  escaping 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


from  certain  cells  or  chambers  of  the  parent  plant, 
for  a  time  move  about  in  the  water  with  great  activity, 
before  developing  into  the  future  plant,  are  named 
c  zoospores/  and  also  c  gonidia.'  The  nature  and  mode 
of  origin  of  these  bodies  were  most  carefully  studied  by 
M.  Thuret1,  and  the  investigation  has  since  been  fol- 
lowed up  by  many  other  observers.  They  seem  to  be 
always  produced  as  a  result  of  differentiations  taking 
place  in  a  previously  formless  protoplasm,  and  in  their 
free  active  stage  of  existence  they  closely  resemble 
certain  infusorial  animalcules,  though,  of  course,  they 
differ  from  these  altogether  as  regards  their  ultimate 
fate.  As  Dr.  Lindley  pointed  out  2  :  —  c  The  reproduc- 
tion of  algals  by  zoospores  is  a  much  more  common 
phenomenon  than  has  been  supposed.  Instead  of  being 
confined  to  the  lower  forms  of  the  alliance,  it  occurs  in 
the  most  completely  organized  forms,  such  as  Lami- 
narias,  which  are  hardly  more  remarkable  for  their 
gigantic  size  than  for  the  complexity  of  their  structure/ 
One  mode  of  formation  and  liberation  of  these  bodies 
is  well  described  by  Agardh.  He  says  3  :  —  c  The  fila- 
ments of  Conferva  area  are,  as  is  well  known,  articu- 
lated or  divided  at  equal  distances  into  little  compart- 
ments (joints),  which  have  no  communication  among 
themselves  other  than  what  results  from  the  per- 
meability of  the  dissepiments.  The  green  matter 

1  Ann.  des  Sc.  Naturelles.     Ser.  3,  t.  xiv. 

2  '  Vegetable  Kingdom,'  3rd  edition,  p.  n. 

3  '  Ann.  des  Sc.  Naturelles,'  1836,  t.  xii.  p.  194. 


172  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

contained  in  these  joints  appears  at  first  altogether  homo- 
geneous^ as  if  it  were  fluid ;  but  in  a  more  advanced 
state  it  becomes  more  and  more  granular.  The  granules 
are,  at  their  formation,  found  adhering  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  membrane ;  but  they  soon  detach  them- 
selves, and  the  irregular  figure  which  they  present  at 
first  passes  to  that  of  a  sphere.  These  granules  congre- 
gate by  degrees  in  the  middle  of  the  joint  into  a  mass, 
at  first  elliptical,  but  which  at  length  becomes  perfectly 
spherical.  All  these  changes  are  conformable  to  the 
phenomena  known  in  vegetable  life;  those  which  are 
to  follow  have  more  analogy  with  the  phenomena  of 
animal  life.  At  this  stage  an  important  metamor- 
phosis exhibits  itself  by  a  motion  of  swarming  (un 
mouvement  de  fourmillement)  in  the  green  matter. 
The  granules  of  which  it  is  composed  detach  them- 
selves from  the  mass  one  after  another,  and  having  thus 
become  free,  they  move  about  in  the  vacant  space  of 
the  joint  with  an  extreme  rapidity.  At  the  same  time 
the  exterior  membrane  of  the  joint  is  observed  to  swell 
in  one  point,  till  on  it  there  forms  a  little  mammilla, 
which  is  to  become  the  point  from  which  the  moving 
granules  finally  issue.  .  .  At  first  they  issue  in  a 
body,  but  soon  those  which  remain,  swimming  in  a 
much  larger  space,  have  much  more  difficulty  in  es- 
caping; and  it  is  only  after  innumerable  knockings 
against  the  walls  of  their  prison  that  they  succeed  in 
finding  an  exit.  From  the  first  instant  of  the  motion 
one  observes  that  the  granules  or  sporules  are  furnished 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  173 

with  a  little  beak,  a  kind  of  anterior  process,  always 
distinguishable  from  the  body  of  the  seed  by  its  paler 
colour.  .  .  .  Escaped  from  their  prison  they  con- 
tinue their  motion  for  one  or  two  hours,  and  retiring 
always  towards  the  darker  edge  of  the  vessel,  some- 
times they  prolong  their  wandering  course,  sometimes 
they  remain  in  the  same  place,  causing  their  beak  to 
vibrate  in  rapid  circles.  Finally  they  collect  in  dense 
masses,  containing  innumerable  grains,  and  attach 
themselves  to  some  extraneous  body  at  the  bottom  or 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  they  hasten  to 
develope  filaments  like  those  of  the  mother  plant.' 

The  mode  of  formation  of  the  single  ciliated  spore  l 
of  Vauckeria  is  perhaps  still  more  interesting,  because 
the  parent  organism,  which  is  a  fine  tufted  filamentous 
Alga,  presents  not  the  slightest  trace  of  a  cellular 
structure,  and  because  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
spore  is  produced.  The  ramified  tubular  structure  of 
the  Alga  is  lined  with  minute  but  bright  green  chloro- 
phyll vesicles  or  granules.  All  the  phenomena  which 
attend  the  formation  of  the  spore  were  frequently 
observed,  and  have  been  carefully  described  by  Dr. 
A.  H.  Hassall,  from  whose  work 2  we  abstract  the 
following  details.  When  spores  are  about  to  form, 
the  extremities  of  some  of  the  filaments  swell  up  in 
the  form  of  a  club,  and  the  green  matter  becomes  so 
much  condensed  at  this  part  as  to  make  it  assume  a 

1  About  ^£o"  in  diameter. 

2  •  History  of  the  British  Fresh  Water  Algae,'  1845,  p.  16. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


blackish  tint.     Near  the  base  of  the  enlargement  the 


FIG.  6. 
Formation  of  Spore  in  Vaucberia.  (Hassall.) 

a,  b,  c,  d.  Successive  changes  in  one  of  terminal  filaments  prior  to  the 

separation  of  the  spore. 

e.  Spore  emerging  from  ruptured  extremity  of  filament. 
/.  Spore  immediately  after  separation. 
g.  Spore  at  later  stage,  larger  and  ciliated. 

b.  Later  still,  showing  changes  which  precede  germination. 

i,  k.  Commencing  growth  of  filaments  from  the  stationary  spore. 

chlorophyll  granules  are  seen  separated  from  one  another, 
leaving  a  clear  and  ultimately  well-defined  space,  in 
which  transparent  mucilage  only  is  to  be  seen,  separating 
the  matter  of  the  future  spore  from  that  of  the  filament. 
All  this  takes  place  most  rapidly,  so  that  in  a  few 
minutes  from  its  commencement  the  embryo  spore 
assumes  an  elongated  oval  form,  and  the  whole  of  it, 
with  the  exception  of  its  proximal  or  inferior  extremity, 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  175 

is  almost  black  from  the  condensation  of  chlorophyll 
that  has  taken  place  in  its  substance.  clt  is  then/ 
Dr.  Hassall  says,  cthat  the  crisis  commences:  the 
superior  extremity  suddenly  becomes  protruded,  the 
granular  fluid  empties  itself  into  the  protruded  portion, 
which  quickly  increases  in  volume,  so  that  the  opposite 
extremity  becomes  separated  from  the  filament.  At 
the  same  time  the  spore  commences  to  turn  on  its  great 
axis  in  such  a  manner  as  that  all  the  granules  which  it 
contains  are  seen  to  pass  rapidly  from  right  to  left,  and 
from  left  to  right,  as  though  they  moved  in  the  interior 
of  a  transparent  cylinder/  The  spore  soon  completely 
frees  itself  from  the  filament1,  and  c  springs  with 
rapidity  into  the  surrounding  liquid,'  where  it  swims 
about  with  its  colourless  portion  always  in  advance, 
and  may  then  be  seen  to  be  surrounded  by  a  tolerably 
thick  transparent  membrane.  It  continues  revolving 
on  its  axis,  at  the  same  time  that  it  moves  about  from 
place  to  place.  c  In  general  it  quickly  reaches  the  edge 
of  the  glass  as  though  it  tried  to  escape ;  sometimes  it 
stops  j  then  in  an  instant  afterwards  it  resumes  its 
course.'  The  cilia  which  cover  the  whole  surface  of 
the  transparent  membrane  are  mostly  invisible  on 
account  of  the  rapidity  of  their  movement ;  but  when 
their  motion  is  retarded  by  putting  some  opium  into 
the  water  containing  the  spore,  the  individual  cilia 

1  These  remarkable  phenomena  may  occur  more  than  once.  Dr. 
Hassall  says,  'I  have  seen  the  operation  thrice  repeated  upon  the 
same  filament.' 


176  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

can  be  easily  discriminated.  With  regard  to  the 
first  appearance  of  these  Dr.  Hassall  says: — CI  have 
observed  many  times  the  emission  of  the  spore  in  a 
coloured  infusion,  and  then  noticed  that  the  agitation 
of  the  granules 1  by  the  motion  of  the  cilia  is  not  felt 
until  about  a  fourth  part  of  the  spore  has  been  released/ 
Prof.  Unger  saw  these  spores  moving  about  for  more 
than  two  hours,  but  when  they  were  covered  by  a  thin 
slip  of  glass,  as  during  the  observations  of  Dr.  Hassall, 
they  never  continued  to  move  for  more  than  nineteen 
minutes.  Dr.  Hassall  says  : — c  The  vibration  of  the 
cilia  continues  sometimes  after  the  spore  is  arrested, 
only  it  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  displace  the  cor- 
puscle. When  at  last  they  cease  to  move,  the  contour 
of  the  spore  undergoes  during  some  instants  a  sensible 
alteration,  which  announces,  perhaps,  the  decomposi- 
tion or  the  absorption  of  the  vibratile  organs2.  The 
motionless  spore  delays  not  to  modify  itself  once  again  : 
it  becomes  spherical ;  the  green  matter  distributes  itself 
equally,  and  the  episporic  membrane,  in  part  reabsorbed, 
at  last  escapes  the  sight ;  very  soon  germination  com- 
mences .  .  .  The  elongation  of  the  filaments 
progresses,  one  might  say  by  eye-sight;  for  I  have 
measured  more  than  once  an  increase  of  three-twentieths 
*of  a  millimetre  in  an  hour.'  The  formation  of  the 
spores  always  takes  place  during  the  first  hours  of  the 

1  Of  carmine  or  indigo. 

2  The  rapid  formation  and  disappearance  of  the  cilia  surrounding 
these  spores  are  features  of  extreme  interest. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  177 

day.  Dr.  Hassall  says: — cThe  tufts  which  I  have 
gathered  the  day  before,  and  which  presented  no  indi- 
cation of  the  formation  being  near  at  hand,  were  in 
general  covered  with  spores  the  next  morning;  and 
after  midday  these  were  all  gathered  on  the  surface 
of  the  water  beginning  to  germinate/ 

The  mode  of  origin  of  the  so-called  c  resting  spore ' 
or  c  seed-cell l '  in  (Edogcnmm  is  also  very  interesting, 
and  illustrates  in  an  important  manner  the  question 
we  are  now  considering.  In  this  case,  the  whole  of 
the  protoplasmic  contents  of  one  of  the  cells  of  the 
plant  goes  to  produce  a  single  new  reproductive  ele- 
ment, instead  of  many  as  in  the  case  of  Conferva 
<erea.  Alexander  Braun'2  describes  the  changes  which 
take  place  as  follows : — c  In  the  formation  of  the  rest- 
ing seed-cells  of  (Edogonium  we  see  the  thickish  cell- 
contents  composed  of  greenish  coloured  mucilage, 
mixed  with  chlorophyll  and  starch  vesicles,  which,  in 
the  earlier  vegetative  period  of  the  cell,  form  a  lining 

1  These  are  reproductive  products  which  do  not  develope  immedi- 
ately after  they  have  been  formed,  into  the  plant  which  they  may  ulti- 
mately produce.  They  continue,  as  Braun  says,  '  for  a  long  time  in  a 
condition  of  rest,  during  which,  excepting  as  regards  imperceptible 
internal  processes,  they  remain  wholly  unchanged.'  The  direct  germ- 
cells,  or  swarming-spores  (gonidia,  or  zoospores),  however,  pass  on, 
after  their  evolution,  through  a  continuous  process  of  growth  and  de- 
velopment till  the  perfect  plant  is  reproduced.  These  latter  are  the  bodies 
of  which  we  have  already  spoken  in  connection  with  Conferva  area,  and 
of  whose  development  in  Achlya  prolifera  we  are  shortly  about  to  speak. 
2  '  Rejuvenescence  in  Nature '  (Translation  by  Henfrey,  Ray  Society), 
1853,  p.  164. 

N 


178  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

of  the  wall,  retreat  from  this  membrane,  and  present 
themselves  as  a  new,  everywhere  free  cell,  destined  for 
reproduction.  The  cell-body  thus  detached  from  the 
walls,  appearing  in  a  new  form,  with  a  new  vital  direc- 
tion, presents  itself  with  regular  form  and  boundaries, 
before  a  trace  of  the  cell  membrane  subsequently  cloth- 
ing It  is  visible.  It  mostly  assumes  a  perfectly  globu- 
lar form,  even  when  the  mother-cell  is  longish ;  in  this 
first  period  of  formation  its  surface  appears  somewhat 
uneven  from  the  projection  of  chlorophyll  vesicles ;  the 
whole  internal  cavity  is  filled  up,  and  of  deep  green 
colour.  Very  slowly  and  gradually  there  appears,  first 
a  simple,  afterwards  a  double,  and  sometimes  even  a 
triple-layered  membrane  upon  the  surface,  while  the 
chlorophyll  and  starch  formations  in  the  contents  pro- 
gressively vanish,  and  give  place  to  reddish  oil-drops, 
which  at  length  occupy  nearly  the  whole  cavity,  and 
give  the  seed-cell  a  brownish-red,  sometimes  even  a 
red-lead  coloured  appearance1.  The  seed-cells  of  the 

1  These  metabolic  changes  of  a  chemical  nature  taking  place  within 
the  cell  are  of  the  highest  interest.  We  have  already  had  occa- 
sion (note,  p.  105)  to  refer  to  the  properties  conferred  upon  a  seed  by  the 
presence  of  much  oil  and  starch  in  its  interior,  and  we  shall  subsequently 
(p.  212)  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the  metabolic  capacities  of  fatty 
products.  One  of  the  best  instances  of  the  conversion  of  chlorophyll 
and  protoplasm  into  colourless  fatty  and  other  materials,  and  of  the  subse- 
quent reconversion  of  these  into  coloured  protoplasm,  is  to  be  met  with 
in  the  life-history  of  Palmoglea.  The  reproduction  of  this  plant  is 
brought  about  by  the  union  of  two  green  vegetative  cells,  the  con- 
tents of  which  are  converted  inj;o  a  single  seed- cell.  Braun  says : — 
'  During  the  gradual  growing  together  and  fusion  of  the  two  combining 
cells,  we  may  trace  the  formation  of  fixed  oil  step  by  step.  Before  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  179 

Zygnemace*  originate  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  (Edo- 
gomum,  with  the  single  distinction  that  in  the  former 
the  contents  of  two  chambers  become  united  to  form 
one  seed-cell/ 

A  mode  of  production  of  zoospores  different  from 
that  already  described  by  Agardh,  and  resembling  more 
closely  that  by  which  the  seed-spore  of  (Edogonlum  is 
produced,  is  now  known  to  take  place  in  Acklya  pro- 
lifer  a — a  curious  little  plant  first  discovered  by  Prof. 
Goodsir,  on  the  gills  of  certain  gold  fish  which  were  in 
an  unhealthy  condition.  It  was  formerly  thought  to  be 
a  species  of  Conferva,  but  it  is  now  regarded  by  the 
Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley  and  others  as  merely  a  submerged 
or  aquatic  form  of  a  Mucor.  This,  as  one  of  the  simplest 
kinds  of  Fungi,  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  most 
careful  investigation  by  Prof.  Unger1.  When  in  the 

beginning  of  the  combination,  the  cells  are  filled  with  finely  granular 
contents,  in  which  we  see  arise,  during  the  progress  of  the  union,  shining 
drops,  at  first  very  small  and  distant,  gradually  growing  larger,  coming 
in  contact  and  coalescing,  so  that  the  intermediate  contents  almost  en- 
tirely disappear,  and  the  complete  spore  appears  filled  merely  with  a 
mixture  of  oil  drops  of  the  most  varied  size.  During  this  process  the 
colour  of  the  cells  changes  from  green  to  a  light  yellowish  brown. 
Vegetative  cells  with  homogeneous  green  contents  originate  subse- 
quently through  transformation  and  division  of  the  contents  of  these 
oleaginous  seed-cells.'  (Loc.  cit.  p.  202,  and  PI.  I,  II.)  In  connection 
with  this  subject,  also,  we  may  call  attention  to  the  fact  elsewhere 
(Linn.  Soc.  Trans,  xxv.  1865,  p.  84)  mentioned,  of  the  large  amount  of 
free  fat  frequently  existing  within  the  intestinal  canal  of  many  of  the 
Free  Nematoids,  which  appears  to  result  from  the  more  or  less  direct 
transformation  of  the  cellulose  taken  as  food. 

1  '  Einiges  zur  Lebensgeschichte  der  Achlya  prolifera,'  in  '  Linmea/ 
1843,  t.  iv. 

N  % 


i8o 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


perfect  state,  it  consists  of  transparent  threads  of  extreme 
fineness  packed  together  as  closely  as  the  pile  of  velvet. 
Dr.  Lindley  says 1 : — c  These  threads  are  terminated  by 
an  extremity  about  T^UIF"  m  diameter,  consisting  of 
a  long  single  cell,  within  which  is  collected  some  green 
mucilage  intermixed  with  granules.  .  .  .  The  contents 


FIG.  7. 
Development  of  Zoospores  in  Acblya  prolifera. 

A.  Dilated  extremity  of  a  filament,  b.  separated  from  the  other  portion 

by  a  partition,  a.  and  containing  young  zoospores  in  process  of 
formation. 

B.  Club-head  after  most  of  the  active  zoospores  have  been  set  free. 

(Unger.) 

1  '  Vegetable  Kingdom,'  3rd  edition,  p.  1 7. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  181 

of  the  cell  are  seen  to  be  in  constant  motion.  .  .  .  While 
this  is  going  on  the  end  of  the  cell  continues  to  grow,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  contents  collect  at  the  extremity, 
and  distend  it  into  a  small  head,  in  form  resembling  a 
club,  immediately  after  which  a  chamber  is  formed  and 
then  the  first  stage  of  fructification  is  established.  The 
next  change  is  observed  to  take  place  in  the  granular 
matter  of  the  club-head,  which  itself  enlarges,  whilst 
the  contents  gain  opaqueness,  and  by  degrees  arrange 
themselves  in  five  or  six-sided  meshes,  which  are  in 
reality  the  sides  of  angular  bodies  that  are  rapidly  form- 
ing at  the  expense  of  the  mucilage  above  mentioned, 
which  has  disappeared.  It  is  not  the  least  surprising 
part  of  this  history  that  all  the  changes  above  men- 
tioned take  place  in  the  course  of  an  hour  or  an  hour  and 
a  half,  so  that  a  patient  observer  may  actually  witness 
the  creation  of  this  singular  plant.  At  this  time  all 
the  vital  energy  seems  directed  towards  changing  the 
angular  bodies  in  the  inside  of  the  club-head  into  pro- 
pagating germs  or  spores.  Meanwhile  the  club-head 
grows,  and  gives  them  a  little  room,  and  they  in  their 
turn  alter  their  form  and  become  oval.  Then  it  is  that 
is  witnessed  the  surprising  phenomenon  of  spontaneous 
motion  in  the  spores,  which,  notwithstanding  the  nar- 
row space  in  which  they  are  born,  act  with  such  vigour 
that  at  last  they  force  a  way  through  the  end  of  the 
club-head.  At  first  one  spore  gets  out  into  the  water, 
then  another  and  another,  till  at  last  the  club-head  is 
emptied.  All  this  takes  place  with  such  .rapidity  that 


1 82  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

a  minute  or  two  suffices  for  the  complete  evacuation 
of  the  club-head  or  spore-chamber.  The  spores  when 
they  find  their  way  into  the  water  are  generally  egg- 
shaped,  and  swim  with  the  small  end  foremost.  .  .  . 
They  are  extremely  small,  their  breadth  not  exceeding 

the  TsW"  °f  an  inch *•' 

But  such  a  mode  of  formation  of  reproductive  spores 
is  by  no  means  a  method  peculiar,  amongst  Fungi,  to 

1  The  formation  of  spores  in  Leptomitus  lacteus  is  said  by  Braun 
('Rejuvenescence  in  Nature,5  translation  by  Henfrey,  Ray  Society,  1853, 
p.  270),  to  take  place  after  precisely  the  same  fashion.  The  two  plants 
are,  in  fact,  closely  allied.  In  both,  according  to  Braun,  the  dichotomous 
filaments  are  not  articulated,  they  are  merely  divided  into  sections  by- 
regular  strictures,  though  these  sections  have  been  taken  for  closed  cells. 
He  says : — '  It  is  only  in  the  fruit  that  isolated,  mostly  terminal  sections 
are  actually  shut  off,  swell  up  to  some  extent,  and  become  spore  cases.' 
And  yet  the  gonidia  of  Leptomitus  differ  from  those  of  Achlya  by  being 
motionless.  In  one  of  the  white  rusts  (Cystopus  candidus),  moreover,  the 
gonidia,  produced  in  the  same  fashion,  are  motionless  when  discharged, 
but  in  a  very  short  time  become  quite  active.  (Cooke's  '  Microscopic 
Fungi,'  2nd  Edit.,  1870,  pp.  127,  132,  and  142.)  The  presence  or  absence 
of  motility  in  the  gonidia  probably  depends  upon  minute  differences 
in  molecular  constitution.  We  are  quite  unable  to  give  any  precise 
reason,  however,  why  such  a  difference  should  exist  between  the  repro- 
ductive spores  of  nearly  allied  species  as  is  found  in  these  and  other 
cases.  In  connection  with  this  subject  it  may  be  mentioned  that  I  have 
frequently  seen  the  chlorophyll  vesicles  within  portions  of  the  filament 
of  a  Vaucheria  which  were  about  to  die,  exhibiting  slow  oscillating 
movements ;  though  in  the  healthy  plant  they  are  always  quite  motion- 
less. And  similarly,  in  the  examination  of  specimens  of  human  blood 
with  the  microscope,  I  have  very  frequently  seen  certain  of  the  red 
corpuscles  in  a  '  crenated '  state  oscillating  most  distinctly,  whilst  other 
normally  shaped  red  corpuscles,  which  may  have  been  by  their  side, 
similarly  isolated,  and  apparently  equally  free  to  move,  were  nevertheless 
quite  motionless. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


183 


the  somewhat  anomalous  species  of  which  we  have  just 
been  speaking.  A  similar  mode  of  origin  of  spores 
is,  in  fact,  very  common  even  in  highly  organized 
Fungi,  and  also  in  very  many  Lichens.  Thus  it  pre- 
vails universally  throughout  the  family  of  ascomycetous 


FIG.  8. 

Development  of  Spores  in  one  of  the  Ascomycetous  Fungi 
(Perisporlum  vulgare).     (Corda.) 

a,  b,  c.  Commencing  differentiation  of  homogeneous  matter  within  asci. 
d,  e,f.  Apparent  resolution  of  this  into  distinct  rounded  spores. 
g.  Rupture  of  ascus,  and  exit  not  of  separate  spores,  but  of  sets  of  four, 
each  contained  within  a  delicate  theca. 

Fungi1,  and  also  amongst  all  the  ascigerous  Lichens: 

1  The  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley,  our  leading  cryptogamic  botanist,  says  : — 
4  There  is  another  point  of  immense  importance,  which  the  cryptogamic 
obsei-ver  has  in  a  peculiar  degree  the  power  of  studying  successfully. 
Questions  often  arise  as  to  the  point  whether  cellular  structure  can 


1 84  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

and  in  these  cases  the  process  differs  only  in  matters  of 
minor  detail  from  that  which  takes  place  in  Achlya. 
In  the  genus  Peziza,  according  to  Corda1,  the  following 
phenomena  may  be  observed.  The  contents  of  the 
mother- cells,  or  spore -cases,  consist  originally  of  a 
mucus-like  substance  through  which  are  diffused  a  num- 
ber of  granules — though  there  are,  at  first,  no  traces  of 
cells  or  nuclei.  In  the  midst  of  this  uniformly  granular 
material,  within  the  spore-case  ofPeziza  acetakulum,  there 
appears,  after  a  time,  a  row  of  globular-looking  bodies, 
ranged  at  regular  distances,  which  are  spoken  of  by 
Corda  as  drops  of  oil.  These,  however,  are  probably 
mucilaginous  nuclei 2,  judging  from  their  relation  to 

originate  withcmt  the  presence  of  a  previous  mother  cell.  It  is  a  ques- 
tion, for  instance,  whether  cells  are  ever  formed  in  Phsenogams  from 
mere  organizable  sap,  as  presumed  by  Mirbel  (Ann.  des  Sc.  Naturelles, 
Second  Series,  vol.  xi.  p.  321)  in  his  paper  on  the  Date  Palm;  or  again, 
whether,  in  what  is  called  organizable  lymph  in  the  animal  world,  cells 
can  originate  freely,  without  pullulation  from  neighbouring  tissue 
with  which  the  lymph  is  in  contact.  .  .  .  Now  in  those  fungi  in  which, 
as  in  Spberia  and  Peziza,  the  reproductive  bodies  are  generated  by  the 
endochrome  of  the  fructifying  cells,  the  Cryptogamist  has  the  power  of 
watching  the  development  of  the  spores  from  the  very  moment  when 
the  endochrome  commences  to  be  organized,  and  he  can  with  confidence 
assert  that  they  are  not  tbe  creatures  of  previously  existing  cells,  but 
the  produce  of  (be  endocbrome  itself.  He  will  be  able  to  compare  with 
this  what  takes  place  in  the  embryo  sac  of  Phaenogams,  and  will 
be  better  prepared  to  appreciate  all  the  arguments  which  bear  upon 
the  Schleidenian  Theory  of  the  formation  of  the  Embryo.' — ('  Intro- 
duction to  Cryptogamic  Botany,'  Lond.  1857,  p.  25). 

1  '  Icones  Fungorum.' 

2  The  nuclei  seem  to  be  produced  in  this  case  after  a  fashion  similar 
to  that  by  which  the  nuclei  of  the  common  water-net  (Hydrodictyon) 
originate.     The  process  is  a  most  important  one,  and  we  are  inclined  to 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  185 

the  spores  which  ultimately  appear.     Lighter  coloured 
areas    are    then     produced     around    these    nuclei  — 

believe  that  the  nuclei  of  many  cells  in  the  human  body,  and  in  animals 
generally,  are  not  unfrequently  produced  after  this  fashion.  The  appear- 
ances in  Hydrodictyon  are  thus  described  by  Braun  (loc.  cit.  p.  261), 
'  At  the  time  when  gonidia  are  about  to  form,  the  mucilaginous  contents 
of  the  cells  change  altogether  in  appearance.  The  fresh  transparent 
green  becomes  more  opaque,  and  the  entire  mucilaginous  layer  acquires, 
even  before  the  solution  of  the  starch  granules  is  completed,  a  peculiar 
regular  appearance,  closely  beset  with  lighter  spots,  which  appearance, 
however,  is  only  distinctly  perceptible  when  the  focus  is  adjusted  to  the 
bottom  of  the  mucilaginous  layer.  These  spots  are  not  the  starch 
grains  undergoing  solution,  as  might  be  conjectured,  for  their  number  is 
much  larger  than  that  of  the  latter.  .  .  .  The  little  green  granules  of  the 
contents,  which,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  I  shall  call  chlorophyll  granules, 
do  not  disappear  with  the  starch  grains,  but  separate  from  each  other  as 
the  period  of  the  formation  of  the  spots,  and  become  accumulated  as 
dark  boundary  lines  between  the  brighter  spots.  .  .  .  The  spots  themselves 
are  roundish  spaces  free  from  granules  existing  in  the  thickness  of  the 
mucilaginous  layer.'  A  little  further  on  (p.  266)  Braun  says : — 
'  Seeking,  in  the  first  place,  the  import  of  the  light  spots  which  charac- 
terize the  first  stage  of  the  new  cell-formation  of  the  water-net,  it  is 
beyond  doubt  that  they  represent  the  centres  of  so  many  new  cells,  con- 
sequently are  either  actual  nuclei,  or,  since  we  cannot  detect  any  defined 
outlines,  accumulations  of  albuminous  substance  analogous  to  nuclei.' 
This  mode  of  formation  of  nuclei  was  also  fully  recognised  by  Naegeli. 
He  summed  up  his  researches  on  the  subject  in  the  following  manner : — 
'  The  nucleus  originates  in  two  ways ;  either  free  in  the  contents  of 
the  cell  or  by  division  of  a  parent  nucleus '  (Henfrey's  Translations,  Ray 
Society  Pub.  1849,  P-  l68)-  The  nucleus  is  described  as  appearing  in 
the  embryo-sacs  of  Scilla  cernua  and  other  flowering  plants  in  the  form 
of '  globular  drops  of  perfectly  homogeneous  mucilage.'  The  nuclei  in 
the  large  ventral  glands  of  some  of  the  Free  Nematoids,  and  in  the 
glandular  substance  lining  the  longitudinal  muscles  of  others,  present 
precisely  similar  characters,  and  may  be  seen  represented  elsewhere 
(Phil.  Trans.  1866,  PL  27,  fig.  8,  and  PL  28,  fig.  32  c.),  in  a  memoir 
on  the  anatomy  of  these  animals.  Whilst  still  unaware  of  the  views 
above  mentioned  concerning  the  origin  of  the  nucleus  I  had  come  to 


1 86  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

owing  apparently  to  the  darker  granules  accu- 
mulating in  the  form  of  zones  between  them — 
as  in  the  formation  of  the  spores  of  Hydrodktyon. 
Later  still,  a  redispersion  of  these  granules  takes  place, 
leaving  light  streaks,  instead  of  dark  granular  boundary 
lines,  between  what  are  to  be  the  future  spores.  Then 
a  solution  of  continuity  is  gradually  effected,  between 
the  several  spores,  in  the  situation  of  these  light  streaks, 
and  also  between  them  and  the  membrane  of  the  spore 
case,  till  the  whole  of  the  contained  protoplasmic 
matter  has  thus  been  broken  up  into  moving  re- 
productive bodies. 

The  phenomena  taking  place  within  the  spore-cases 
of  Lichens  are  essentially  similar.  It  is  stated  by 
Pineau1  that  the  process  can  be  best  watched  in 
Physcia  ciliaris,  on  account  of  the  large  and  transparent 
nature  of  the  spore  cases  in  this  species.  The  first 
step  in  the  formation  of  the  spore  in  this  plant  is 
said  to  be  the  formation  of  aggregations  amongst  the 
granules  which  had  been  previously  dispersed  through- 
out the  mucilaginous  contents  of  the  spore-case.  These 

the  conclusion  that  such  was  the  mode  of  origin  of  the  nucleus  in  the 
white  blood  corpuscle.  (See  p.  227.)  Here,  as  in  other  cases,  the  definite 
bounding-wall  of  the  nucleus  is,  like  the  cell-wall  itself,  an  after  pro- 
duction. 

In  certain  cases  the  nucleus  makes  its  appearance  before  the  com- 
plete individuation  of  the  embryo  cell  has  taken  place,  but,  just  as 
frequently  (as  is  the  case  with  white  blood  corpuscles),  the  nucleus 
appears,  after  the  fashion  above  indicated,  in  an  already  isolated  non- 
nucleated  embryo  cell,  or  plastide. 

1  '  Ann.  des  Sc.  Naturelles,'  1848,  p.  99. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


187 


constitute  so  many  foci,  and  as  a  result  of  changes 
subsequently  occurring  around  these  granule-heaps  the 
separate  spores  result. 

Another  most  striking  instance  of  the  new  origina- 
tion of  cells  within  the  tissues  of  plants,  has  been 
revealed  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  H.  J.  Carter  on 
changes  taking  place  within  the  internodes  of  different 
members  of  the  family  Charace*1.  He  principally 
examined  specimens  belonging  to  the  genus  Nitella^ 


FIG.  9. 

Development  of  new  cells  in  internodes  of  Cbara.     (Carter.) 

a.  Natural  arrangement  of  chlorophyll  vesicles. 

b.  Commencing  rearrangement  of  these. 

c.  Aggregation  into  distinct  masses. 

d.  Assumption  of  cell  form. 

which  were   to   be   found    in   the   ponds   at  Bombay. 
In   order   to   make   his   description   clear,  the   reader 

1  '  Observations  on  the  Development  of  Gonidia  from  the  Cell-con- 
tents of  the  Cbaracea,'  by  H.  J.  Carter,  F.R.S.,  '  Annals  of  Nat.  Hist.' 
July  1855. 


1 88  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

should  understand  that  the  branches  of  this  plant  are 
made  up  of  elongated,  cylindrical,  and  transparent 
cells,  or  internodes,  of  a  greenish  colour.  On  micro- 
scopical examination  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
colour  is  due  to  the  presence,  immediately  beneath 
the  cell-wall,  of  a  layer  of  green  chlorophyll  disks  or 
vesicles,  each  of  which  is  about  -^^s'  in  diameter. 
These  are  uniformly  distributed,  except  along  a  spirally 
disposed  line — which  is  therefore  colourless — on  each 
side  of  the  cell.  In  the  situation  of  this  line  (along 
which  the  green  disks  are  absent),  the  c mucus'  or 
protoplasmic  layer  has  also  less  depth  than  it  has  over 
other  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  internode.  The  layer 
of  green  disks  lies,  in  fact,  in  the  outermost  or  super- 
ficial portion  of  the  protoplasmic  layer,  whilst  within 
this  is  situated  a  colourless  axial  fluid.  The  inner 
surface  of  the  protoplasmic  layer  is  irregular  and  under- 
goes constant  changes  of  form.  It  is  these  contrac- 
tions of  the  mucus  or  protoplasmic  layer,  taking  place 
in  a  regular  manner,  which  communicate  their  motion 
to  the  contained  fluid,  and  thus  produce  the  so-called 
c  cyclosis '  of  the  cell-contents.  With  these  explana- 
tions the  reader  will  readily  understand  Mr.  Carter's 
description.  He  says: — c All  are  aware  that  in  the 
fresh-water  Algae  commonly  called  Confervas,  the  for- 
mation of  the  spore  is  preceded  by  a  breaking  up  or 
displacement  of  the  cell  contents,  after  which  a  con- 
densation and  rearrangement  of  them  takes  place,  and 
they  are  then  invested  with  a  capsule  which  remains 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  189 

entire,  until  the  time  arrives  for  the  spore  thus  formed 
to  germinate.  Now,  under  certain  circumstances, 
which  appear  to  be  the  approaching  dissolution  or  death 
of  the  cell-tva/l,  a  similar  process  takes  place  in  the 
cells  of  the  Characeae;  and  following  this  from  the 
beginning,  we  find,  that  it  first  commences  with  a 
cessation  of  the  circulation,  after  which  the  lines  of 
green  disks  forming  the  green  layer  become  displaced, 
and,  as  if  obeying  a  still  continued  but  inappreciable 
movement  of  the  mucus-layer,  they  roll  themselves  up 
into  lines  which  assume  a  more  or  less  irregular  arrange- 
ment across  the  internode,  or  into  groups  of  different 
sizes,  more  or  less  connected  by  narrow  lines  of  mucus 
and  single  disks,  so  as  to  present  an  areolar  structure 
in  contact  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  cell-wall.  The 
next  stage  is  the  separation  of  the  disks  into  still  more 
distinct  groups,  which,  having  become  more  circum- 
scribed and  circular,  leave  the  cell-wall  and  evince 
a  certain  amount  of  polymorphism  and  locomotion. 
The  cavity  of  the  internode  hitherto  rendered  turbid 
by  the  breaking  up  of  the  green  layer,  now  clears  off 
and  becomes  transparent,  save  where  the  circular  masses, 
which  have  changed  from  their  original  green  into 
a  brownish-green  or  yellow  colour,  intercept  the  light. 
After  a  day  or  two, — but  the  time  seems  to  vary, — 
the  green  disks  become  entirely  brown,  and  the  group 
assuming  a  more  circumscribed  and  circular  form, 
shows  that  it  is  surrounded  by  a  transparent  globular 
cell[-wali]j  this  we  shall  henceforth  call  the  gonidial 


1 90  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

cell.'  I  have  also,  of  late,  since  having  become  ac- 
quainted with  these  observations  of  Mr.  Carter,  re- 
peatedly watched  the  formation  of  independent  cells 
of  this  kind  within  the  filaments  of  Vaucheria — resulting 
from  modifications  taking  place  in  what  were  at  first 
irregular  masses  of  protoplasm  containing  chlorophyll 
granules.  A  definite  cell-wall  is  soon  formed  around 
these  variously-sized  masses,  whilst  the  most  striking 
changes  also  take  place  in  the  substance  of  the  newly 
constituted  cell.  These  changes,  however,  will  be  more 
fully  described  in  a  later  chapter. 

Hitherto  we  have  been  speaking  of  Cryptogamic 
plants,  but  through  the  admirable  researches  of  Hof- 
meister l  we  know  that  just  as  good  instances  of  '  free ' 
cell  formation  are  to  be  met  with  amongst  the  Pha- 
nerogamia,  or  o  dinary  flowering  plants.  The  inves- 
tigation of  the  subject  here,  is  however  much  more 
difficult  for  the  observer.  There  is  this  difference  also, 
with  these  more  complicated  plants,  that  the  embryo-sac, 
or  mother-cell,  itself  persists  for  a  time,  instead  of  being 
destroyed  by  the  reproductive  process,  We  will  quote 
the  description  given  by  Braun2  of  the  phenomena 
taking  place  during  the  formation  of  the  seed  in  one 
of  the  flowering  plants.  He  says  : — c  The  embryo-sac, 
or  germ-sac,  as  it  is  termed,  is  the  last  cell  of  the 
mother  plant,  the  uppermost  in  the  axial  row  of  cells 
of  the  ovule,  destined  to  become  the  focus  of  re- 

1  '  Der  Enstehung  des  Embryos  der  Phanerogamen,'  1849. 
2  Loc.  cit.  p.  276. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE,  191 

production.,  the  mother-cell  of  new  individuals;  the 
germinal  vesicles  forming  in  it  are  the  real  rudiments 
of  the  new  individuals,  the  unicellular  germs  of  new 
plants.  They  are  formed  already  before  the  period  of  the 
scattering  of  the  pollen,  as  free  nuclei  originating  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  embryo-sac  (the  end  turned  to  the 
apex  of  the  nucleus  and  the  micropyle),  in  which  the 
protoplasm  is  principally  accumulated.  Around  these 
nuclei  soon  appear  sharply  defined  masses  of  contents, 
which  are,  as  it  were,  cc  cut  out "  of  the  general  mass  of 
contents  of  the  embyro-sac.  The  number  of  germinal 
vesicles  is  mostly  three,  rarely  more.  .  .  .  Ordinarily 
only  one  of  them  becomes  developed  into  an  embryo, 
this  outstripping  the  others  in  growth  even  before 
fertilization — or  the  latter  even  die  away  and  dis- 
solve about  that  epoch.5  After  mentioning  the  mode 
in  which  it  comes  into  contact  with  the  pollen  tube, 
Braun  says: — cln  other  respects  the  germinal  vesicle 
remains  wholly  free  during  its  development  into  sus- 
pensor  (vorkeim)  and  embryo;  becoming  developed 
without  any  connection  with  the  other  phenomena 
of  cell  formation  in  the  embryo-sac  ...  so  that  it 
affords  us,  not  merely  in  its  present  formation,  but 
also  in  its  further  behaviour,  the  example  of  the  freest 
and  most  independent  cell-formation  which  the  plant 
exhibits.'  During  the  process  of  formation  of  the 
germinal  vesicles  and  certain  transitory  cells  at  the 
other  end  of  the  embryo-sac,  this  latter  as  a  whole 
seems  to  retain  its  vitality ;  its  primary  nucleus  usually 


192  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

survives  and  may  even  increase  in  size  after  the  for- 
mation of  the  germinal  vesicles.  According  to  Braun, 
c  The  nucleus  of  the  embyro-sac  is  only  dissolved  during 
or  shortly  before  the  period  of  fertilization,  and  then 
a  profound  reconstruction  commences  in  the  interior 
of  the  embyro-sac,  expressed  in  the  production  of 
daughter  cells  likewise  free,  but  so  numerous  that  they 
soon  exhaust  the  independent  life  of  the  former,  and 
the  entire  cavity  becomes  filled  up  by  the  cohering 
newly-formed  cells.  The  tissue  produced  in  this  way 
is  the  endosperm,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  albumen  of 
the  seed,  in  which  the  developing  embryo  of  the  new 
plant  then  becomes  imbedded.  The  endosperm  cells, 
like  the  germinal  vesicles,  originate  as  free  nuclei  in 
the  fluid  of  the  embryo-sac,  which  subsequently  becomes 
surrounded  by  masses  of  contents  and  clothed  with 
membranes.  The  cells  thus  formed  very  soon  combine 
into  a  continuous  parenchyma,  in  which  there  is  no 
longer  evidence  of  the  origin  from  free  cells.'  Such  is 
the  mode  of  origin  and  development  of  the  seeds  of 
most  of  the  flowering  plants. 

If  we  now  turn  our  attention  to  some  of  the  methods 
by  which  reproductive  germs,  or  ova,  are  produced  in 
the  members  of  the  Protistic  and  Animal  Kingdoms, 
we  shall  find  these  strikingly  analogous  to  the  modes  of 
origin  of  reproductive  units,  such  as  we  have  just  been 
citing,  amongst  the  various  members  of  the  Vegetable 
Kingdom. 

The  first  example  to  which  we  shall  refer  will  be  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  193 

process  of  reproduction  recently  described  by  Professor 
Haeckel  as  occurring  in  Protomyxa  aurantiacay  one  of  the 
lowest  amoeboid  creatures,  belonging  to  the  group  Mo- 
nera,  found  by  him  on  a  shell  dredged  from  deep  water 
near  the  Canary  Isles.  It  existed  in  the  form  of  a  mass 
of  jelly-like  substance  of  a  reddish-yellow  colour,  visible 
even  to  the  naked  eye,  the  peripheral  portions  of  whose 
body-mass  were  prolonged  into  moving,  branch-like 
appendages.  These  very  frequently  became  more  or 
less  united  and  interlaced  amongst  one  another,  whilst 
the  homogeneous  body-substance  displayed  in  its  inte- 
rior only  a  number  of  small  granules,  interspersed  with 
larger,  highly  refractive,  and  more  or  less  spherical  par- 
ticles, and  also  a  variable  number  of  merely  temporary 
spaces,  or  vacuoles,  containing  fluid.  The  granules, 
particles,  and  vacuoles  were  invariably  found  to  increase 
in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  food  which  the 
Protomyxa  had  previously  taken.  After  a  time  some  of 
the  highly-fed  individuals  were  seen  to  undergo  a  pro- 
cess of  encystment.  They  began  to  retract  their  vari- 
ous branch-like  pseudopodia^  and  to  eject  all  debris  of 
food  that  might  still  remain  within  their  body-sub- 
stance, whilst  the  vacuoles  in  their  interior  diminished 
in  number.  After  some  days,  instead  of  the  previously 
branched  plasmodium,  little  orange-red  spherical  balls 
were  to  be  seen.  The  external  layers  of  these  gradu- 
ally became  more  and  more  defined,  and  afterwards  the 
contracted  body-mass  was  found  to  be  enclosed  within 
a  thick  colourless  envelope  or  cyst.  The  vacuoles  and 

o 


194 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


large  particles  gradually  disappeared  until  nothing  but 


FIG.  10. 
Reproduction  of  rrotomyxa.     (Haeckel.) 

a.  Protomyxa  aurantiaca  encysted;  a  homogeneous  ball  of  protoplasm, 

surrounded  by  a  structureless,  gelatinous  covering,      x  300. 

b.  The  same  in  later  stage  of  development.    The  plasma  ball  completely 

divided  into  small  globular  bodies,      x  300. 

c.  Cyst  ruptured,  showing  exit  of  active  spores,  having  long  tail-like 

prolongations.  After  a  time  these  become  stationary ;  they  retract 
their  tails,  and  protrude  instead  a  number  of  pointed  irregular 
processes.  In  this  condition,  they  are  true  amoeboid  creatures, 
still  without  vacuoles  or  nucleus  in  their  homogeneous  body 
substance. 

a  few  fine  granules  were  left  scattered  through  the 
otherwise  perfectly  homogeneous  protoplasm  mass. 
Then,  in  the  course  of  a  day  or  two,  and  after  it  had 
retracted  somewhat  from  the  hyaline  capsular  wall., 
traces  of  segmentation  revealed  themselves  in  this 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  195 

enclosed  mass  of  protoplasm;  whilst  by  a  continu- 
ance of  the  process  it  eventually  became  broken  up 
into  a  number  of  small  reddish  balls  about  ^  ^  0"  in 
diameter.  After  the  lapse  of  about  a  week  Professor 
Haeckel  noticed  that  a  slow  movement  of  the  naked 
protoplasm  masses  had  commenced  within  the  cyst. 
He  says : — '  The  motion  consisted  in  no  regular  rota- 
tion of  the  balls,  but  in  a  slow  change  of  place 
among  them,  in  which  they  crowded  in  all  directions 
among  each  other  without  any  fixed  order.  .  .  . 
Some  hours  afterwards  the  motion  had  become  livelier ; 
and  the  red  balls  had  assumed  a  pear-shaped  form,  in 
which  one  end  was  produced  into  a  fine  point.  In  their 
confused  motions  within  the  cyst  they  changed  the 
shape  of  their  soft  pear-shaped  bodies  many  times,  be- 
coming sometimes  drawn  out  into  a  longer,  sometimes 
into  a  shorter  club-shaped  body,  and  sometimes  they 
became  twisted.  .  .  .  Next  day  I  found  one  of 
the  cysts  burst ;  the  empty  collapsed  wall  lay  shrivelled 
at  the  bottom  of  the  watch  glass,  and  a  great  number 
of  small  club-  or  pear-shaped  red  bodies  moved  about 
freely  in  the  sea-water.  It  now  appeared  that  the  red 
balls  were  the  sporules  of  the  Protomyxa,  and  that  they 
danced  about  after  issuing  from  the  cyst  like  Flagellata, 
or  like  the  sporules  of  Algae.3  These  germs  were  quite 
simple  and  homogeneous  throughout — no  nucleus  or 
contractile  vacuole  was  to  be  seen,  no  limiting  mem- 
brane, but  only  a  yellowish-red  protoplasmic  substance 
in  which  were  imbedded  a  few  fine  granules.  The 

o  2 


196  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

swarming  movements  of  the  germs  were  precisely  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  sporules  of  the  Myxomycetas 1.  The 
movement  is  progressive,  accompanied  by  a  rotatory 
or  lash-like  action  of  the  cilium,  which  consists  merely 
of  a  prolongation  of  the  body-substance  of  the  germ. 
The  swarming  time  of  the  Protomyxa  spores  seems  to 
last  at  least  one  day.  On  the  day  following  that  of 
their  exit  from  the  cyst.  Professor  Haeckel  mostly 
found  them  lying  quiet  at  the  bottom  of  the  watch 
glass.  And  then,  he  says,  cthe  tail  of  the  spore  was 
drawn  in,  and  the  pear-shaped  form  of  the  body  was 
exchanged  for  that  of  an  irregular  roundish  disc,  whose 
star-shaped  circumference  was  drawn  out  into  several 
processes.  The  reddish-yellow  plasma  bodies  now  com- 
pletely resembled  in  outline  the  spores  of  Myxomycette 
when  they  had  come  to  rest ;  or  likewise  Amoeba  radiosa 
of  Ehrenberg.  .  .  .  Most  of  the  processes  were  simple, 
but,  at  this  stage,  the  largest  already  began  to  divide' 
themselves  dichotomously,  or  repeatedly  to  ramify  them- 
selves. The  protrusion  and  retraction  of  the  ever- 
changing  processes  was  accomplished  throughout  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  lively  moving  species  of 
Amoeba/  These  separate  amoeboid  creatures  now  began 
to  take  food  for  themselves ;  they  rapidly  increased 
in  size,  and  then  also  began  to  throw  out  more  numerous 
and  complex  processes  from  their  circumference.  Then, 
too,  they  first  developed  large  refractive  particles  in  their 

1  These  however,  even  at  a  similar  early  stage,  are  provided  with 
a  contractile  vacuole. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  197 

interior,  as  well  as  the  so-called  vacuoles — the  latter, 
which  constantly  change  in  size  and  in  situation,  being 
usually  filled  with  fluid  contents  \ 

Another  most  interesting  mode  of  development  of 
reproductive  germs  occurring  in  the  higher  nucleated 
forms  of  Amoebae — the  Protoplasta  of  Prof.  Haeckel — 
has  been  described  by  Nicolet2.  In  these  higher  Amoebae, 
which,  though  they  continually  change  their  form,  do  not 
send  out  complicated  processes  like  those  of  the  Proto- 
myxa, multiplication  takes  place  by  means  of  fission  and 
also  by  germ-formation.  The  process  of  germ-forma- 
tion— closely  resembling  that  by  which  the  spores  are 
produced  in  Conferva  area — only  takes  place  towards 
the  close  of  the  life  of  the  parent  Amoeba,  whose  exist- 
ence is  terminated  by  the  setting  free  of  its  numerous 
progeny.  At  a  certain  stage  in  the  life  of  one  of  these 
individuals — such  as  would  have  been  named  Amoeba 
princeps  by  Ehrenberg — the  granules  contained  in  the 


1  Although  a  Protomyxa  is  capable  of  increasing  much  in  size  and 
complexity  by  the  ordinary  processes  of  growth,  there  is  also  another 
process  by  means  of  which  the  larger  individuals  are  produced.     Pro- 
fessor Haeckel  says,  '  I  could  many  times  immediately  follow  in  the 
swarms  of  Protomyxa  under  my  eyes  the  formation  of  a  plasmodium  by 
the  growing  together  (concrescence)  of  two  or  more  Amoebae.'     Some- 
times it  happened  that  two  Amoebae,  attaching  themselves  to  a  single 
Navicula,  would,  by  drawing  themselves  over  it,  meet  in  the  middle 
and  then  become  united  to  one  another.     After  the  process  of  digestion, 
the  united  plasma-mass  would  free  itself  from  the  silicious  diatom  shell, 
but  would  remain  as  a  single  individual.     To  such  fusions  of  originally 
distinct  living  things  we  shall  have  again  to  refer. 

2  Thompson's  Arcana  Natnra,  1859  (Paris),  p.  27. 


198 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


midst  of  its  body-substance  are  said  to  come  together 


FIG.  ii. 
Formation  of  reproductive  units  in  Amceba.     (Nicolet.) 

a.  Amceba  princeps  (Ehr.)  containing  refractive  granules  and  particles  in 

its  interior. 

b,  c,  d.  Different  stages  in  aggregation  of  granules. 

e,  f,  g,  b.  Showing  gradual  concentration  and  increase  in  size  of  repro 
ductive  mass,  with  corresponding  diminution  and  contraction  of 
surrounding  substance. 

here  and  there  so  as  to  form  much  larger  refractive 
particles.  These  latter  unite  again  to  form  still  larger 
masses,  and  ultimately,  after  several  steps  of  this  kind, 
only  to  be  followed  by  prolonged  observation,  the 
different  granule  heaps  collect  into  a  single  mass 
which,  at  first,  is  irregular  and  mamillated,  but  gradually 
becomes  smooth  and  assumes  an  ovoid  or  spherical 
form.  According  to  Nicolet,  the  contractile  body-sub- 
stance of  the  animal  diminishes  and  becomes  more 
transparent  in  direct  proportion  to  the  increase  in  size 
of  this  central  aggregation  of  granules.  The  move- 
ments of  the  Amceba,  also,  become  slower;  it  remains 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  199 

for  a  longer  time  stationary  in  the  same  situation.  It 
devours  no  more  food,  and  sends  out  only  short  projec- 
tions. When  the  central  mass  has  attained  its  maxi- 
mum size,  and  when  no  further  trace  of  granules  re- 
mains in  its  glutinous  body-substance,  the  Amoeba 
contracts  and  becomes  rounded,  by  collecting  its  out- 
lying portions  around  the  enclosed  and  altered  granular 
mass.  Then,  after  a  time,  suddenly  and  with  the  rapidity 
of  lightning,  the  germ-mass  breaks  up  and  disappears, 
shooting  out  around  the  space  which  it  had  previously 
occupied  myriads  of  oblong  particles,  each  furnished 
with  a  thread-like  flagellum  *.  These  dart  about  in  the 
water  and  closely  resemble  very  minute  Astast*. 

In  the  great  majority  of  animals  ova  are  produced 
from  germs  arising  either  (a)  in  the  upper  part  or 
blind  extremity  of  an  ovarian  tube,  or  else  (£)  in  the 
midst  of  the  stroma  of  a  more  or  less  solid  organ, 
called  an  ovary,  where  each  is  invariably  lodged  within 
an  covisac'  or  so-called  Graafian  follicle.  The  best 
examples  of  the  first  mode  of  origin  of  ova  are  to  be 
met  with  amongst  Nematoids  and  Insects;  whilst  in 
Birds  and  throughout  the  Mammalian  series,  on  the 

1  In  the  case  of  Conferva  area,  however,  the  granules,  instead  of 
separating  from  one  another  at  once  and  with  such  rapidity,  are  stated 
by  Agardh  to  detach  themselves  one  by  one  from  the  spherical  heap  of 
granules  similarly  formed.  Then,  however,  they  also  move  about  with 
great  rapidity.  The  suddenness  of  the  dispersion  reminds  one  of  the 
phenomena  of  '  diffluence '  which  have  been  observed  in  certain  Amoebae 
and  Ciliated  Infusoria,  and  to  which,  indeed,  Nicolet  calls  the  attention 
of  his  readers. 


200  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

contrary,  we  are  presented  with  typical  instances  of 
their  origination  in  the  midst  of  the  more  or  less  solid 
tissue  of  the  ovary. 

The  development  of  ova  has  been  studied  perhaps 
with  the  greatest  success  amongst  members  of  the  order 
Nematoidea  -3  for,  on  account  of  the  simplicity  and  trans- 
parency of  the  ovarian  tubes,  the  whole  process  of  egg 
formation  can  be  watched  in  these  animals  more  readily 
than  in  many  others.  As  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Nelson l 
and  by  Prof.  Allen  Thomson 3,  the  process  of  egg  de- 
velopment commences  in  the  Ascarides^  or  Round 
Worms,  by  the  appearance  c  of  minute  cell-germs  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  ovarian  tube,  immediately  ad- 
joining its  csecal  termination/  Leaving  aside  all 
theories  as  to  the  precise  mode  of  origin  of  these 
c  cell-germs,' — since  this  is  a  question  on  which  we 
possess  no  decisive  evidence — it  is  admitted  by  Dr. 
Thomson  himself  that  c  some  from  the  highest  part  are 
mere  molecules  j  although  others  a  little  further  down 
have  already  assumed  the  appearance  of  minute  nucle- 
ated cells.  These  nucleated  cells  constitute  the  so- 
called  c  germinal  vesicles/  Concerning  the  remain- 
ing steps  in  the  formation  of  the  ovum  in  these  animals 
there  is  the  greatest  unanimity  of  opinion  amongst 
anatomists;  so  that,  although  we  avail  ourselves  of 
the  description  given  by  Dr.  Allen  Thomson,  it  must 

1  « Reproduction  of  the  Ascaris  mystax,'  in  Philosophical  Transactions, 
1852. 

2  '  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,'  vol.  v.  1859,  P-  I2°- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  201 

be  understood  that  his  opinions  are  in  accordance  with 
those  of  other  naturalists.  The  second  stage  in  the 
formation  of  the  ovum  has  to  do  with  the  deposit  of  the 
vitelline  or  yolk-substance  around  the  germinal  vesicle. 


FIG.  12. 
Early  forms  of  ova  in  Ascaris  mystax.     (Thomson.) 

a.  Molecular  condition. 

b,  c.  Germinal  vesicles  becoming  surrounded  by  yolk  granules. 
d,  e.  Irregular  forms  of  ova  due  to  tight  packing. 

/.  Later  stage  showing  first  traces  of  vitelline  membrane. 

Dr.  Thomson  says: — cThe  granules  of  the  yolk-sub- 
stance very  soon  collect  round  the  exterior  of  the  germi- 
nal vesicles1.  These  granules  appear  at  first  to  be 

1  In  some  cases,  however,  the  order  is  different.  The  germinal 
vesicle  may  at  first  be  surrounded  by  more  or  less  of  a  clear  viscous 
material  in  which  granules,  after  a  time,  make  their  appearance.  Thus 
Professor  Thomson  tells  us  (loc.  cit.  p.  133)  that  'In  most  animals 


202  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

suspended  in  fluid ;  but  a  little  later,  as  they  come  to 
collect  round  the  germinal  vesicles,  they  are  united 
together  in  a  mass  by  a  firmer  but  clear  basement  sub- 
stance, and  when  the  minute  ova  have  somewhat  in- 
creased in  size,  the  outline  of  this  clearer  basement 
substance  of  the  yolk  is  distinguishable.  There  is  not, 
however,  at  first  any  external  or  vitelline  membrane ; 
of  this  Dr.  Nelson  and  I  have  convinced  ourselves  by 
repeated  observations  in  Ascaris  mystax.  .  .  .  The 
ova,  as  they  continue  to  descend  in  the  vitelligenous 
part  of  the  tube  in  immense  numbers  closely  pressed 
together,  assume  the  form  of  subtriangular  flattened 
bodies.  ...  A  prodigious  number  of  ova  are  thus 
packed  together  in  a  very  small  space.'  In  many 
instances  it  is  only  after  fecundation  has  taken  place 
that  the  vitelline  membrane  seems  to  become  de- 
veloped. The  production  of  this  is  usually  spoken  of 
as  the  third  stage  in  the  formation  of  the  ovum.  In 
all  the  simpler  kinds  of  ova  it  is  supposed  to  result — 
after  the  fashion  of  the  cell-wall  generally — from  cthe 
consolidation  of  the  superficial  part  of  the  basement 
substance '  of  the  yolk l. 

the  yolk-substance,  when  it  first  begins  to  be  formed,  is  scarcely  granu- 
lar, and  in  some  instances  quite  clear,  consisting  of  a  viscous  blastema. 
.  .  .  Very  soon,  however,  and  in  many  animals  indeed  from  the 
first,  fine  opaque  granules  make  their  appearance,  as  if  by  precipitation  or 
deposit  in  the  clearer  basement  substance,  and  thus  the  primitive  yolk-sub- 
stance of  the  ovum  in  all  animals  is  formed.' 

1  This  mode  of  formation  of  the  ovum  in  Ascaris  corresponds 
with  the  mode  of  origin  of  cells  described  by  the  upholders  of  the 
'investment  theory'  (Umhullungs-theorie). 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


20 


Referring  now,  for  a  time,  to  the  other  mode  of 
formation  of  the  ovum,  we  may  state  that  the  question, 
concerning  which  there  is  the  most  uncertainty  (and 
at  the  same  time  one  to  which  a  considerable 
interest  attaches)  is  c  whether  the  ovisac  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  vesicle  of  evolution  of  the  ovum,  or 


FIG.  13. 
Diagrammatic  representation  of  section  of  two  Graafian  Follicles  or 

Ovisacs  in  different  stages  of  advancement  in  the  ovary  of  a  mam- 

mifer ;  enlarged  about  ten  diameters.     (Coste.) 
p.  Peritoneal  covering  of  the  ovary. 
st.  Ovarian  stroma. 
ov.  The  two  layers  of  the  ovisac. 
mg.  Membrana  granulosa,  near  which  is  the  discus  granulosus,  with  the 

ovum  embedded. 

whether  the  ovum,  or  parts  of  it  at  least,  are  previously 
formed,    and   the   ovisac   is   afterwards    superadded1?' 

1  '  Cyclopaed.  of  Anat.  and  Phys.'  vol.  v.  p.  554.  In  its  later  stages 
the  ovum  of  all  the  higher  animals  is  found  to  be  contained  within 
a  most  distinct  ovisac  or  Graafian  vesicle — that  is,  within  a  com. 
paratively  large  receptacle  filled  with  a  granular  fluid,  in  which  the 


204  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Martin  Barry  and  also  Allen  Thomson  incline  to  the 
latter  view,  whilst  Bischoff,  Valentin,  and  others, 
maintain  that  the  germinal  vesicle  of  the  ovum  first 
appears  within  the  ovisac,  and  that  the  latter  is  there- 
fore the  primary  formation.  It  is  stated,  however, 
both  by  Dr.  Martin  Barry  and  Dr.  Thomson,  that  the 
ovisac  (if  it  does  precede)  could  only  be  formed  c  a  very 
short  period'  before  the  rudiments  of  the  ovum,  because 
even  where  it  is  most  minute  it  is  found  to  co-exist 
with  the  germinal  vesicle.  And  at  this  early  stage  (as 
they  and  all  others  admit)  there  is  only  a  trace  of  the 
future  yolk,  and  none  of  the  cells  which  subsequently 
compose  the  memhrana  granulosa.  The  development  of 
these  cells,  at  all  events,  and  the  further  development 
of  the  ovum,  undoubtedly  take  place  within  the  ovisac. 

ovum  appears  as  an  almost  free  anatomical  element,  situated,  at  a 
certain  portion  of  its  circumference,  in  the  midst  of  a  granular  and  rudi- 
mentary cell  structure.  At  its  period  of  maturation,  the  Graafian  vesicle 
bursts  and  sets  free  the  contained  ovum.  We  extract  the  following 
from  Dr.  Thomson's  article : — '  In  the  human  ovary  these  follicles  are 
firm  spheroidal  sacs  which  attain  when  mature  an  average  size  of  about 
£  of  an  inch.  In  the  ovaries  of  women  during  the  child-bearing  period, 
a  number  of  smaller  follicles  lie  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  ovary ;  the  more  developed  follicles  being  usually  placed 
towards  the  free  surface,  but  at  some  little  distance  from  it.  As  they 
enlarge  and  approach  maturity,  the  ovarian  substance  seems  to  give  way 
to  them,  or  to  become  gradually  thinner  between  the  follicles  and  the 
outer  surface  of  the  ovary,  so  as  at  last  to  leave  almost  nothing  but  the 
covering  membranes  of  the  ovary  at  the  most  projecting  part.  .  .  . 
The  following  are  the  results  of  a  few  measurements  made  by  myself 
and  others  of  the  external  diameter  of  the  mature  ovarian  ovum,  viz. 
man  ^,  dog  T^,  cat  T^,  rabbit  ^  rat  ^,  mouse  ^,  pig  sfa, 
cow  2^,  guinea-pig  ^  of  an  inch.' — (Loc.  cit.  pp.  81-83.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


205 


Whether  or  not  the  first  rudiments  of  the  ovum,  the 
germinal  vesicle,  is  formed  first  or  formed  within  the 
ovisac,  must  therefore  still  be  considered  an  open  ques- 
tion, although  the  balance  of  evidence  seems,  perhaps, 
rather  more  favourable  than  adverse  to -its  secondary 
formation ;  and  if  this  were  the  case,  the  process  would 
strongly  resemble  that  by  which  the  vegetable  ovule 
arises  in  all  flowering  plants.  Turning,  however,  to 
the  question  of  the  mode  of  formation  of  the  ovum 
itself,  Dr.  Allen  Thomson  tells  us  that  the  earliest 
stages  in  its  development  are  best  traced  in  such 


FIG.  14. 

Portions  of  the  Ovarian  Stroma  and  Ovisacs  of  the 
Thrush.     (Thomson.) 

a.  Earliest  state  of  ova  to  be  perceived  in  ovarian  stroma,  consisting, 

first  of  minute  granular  spots  ;  next  of  clear  points  within  a  granular 
mass;  and  thirdly,  of  small  germinal  vesicles  surrounded  by  the 
minutely  granular  dark  yolk-substance. 

b,  c.  Different  stages  of  formation  of  the  ovisac  round  the  small  ova : 

epithelium  is  seen  to  line  the  sac,  and  the  germinal  vesicle,  with 

occasionally  a  single  macula,  is  now  apparent. 
d.  The  ovisac  and  ovum  in  a  more  advanced  stage. 
ov.  Ovisac  with  epithelial  lining. 
v.  Minutely  granular  yolk. 


206  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

animals  as  the  thrush,  the  yellow-hammer,  or  the 
chaffinch  — on  account  of  the  transparency  of  the 
ovarian  tissue  in  these  smaller  singing  birds.  He 
describes  the  earliest  appearances  in  the  ovarian  stroma 
of  the  thrush  to  be  as  follows  :  first,  the  appearance  '  of 
minute  granular  spots;  next,  of  clear  points  within  a 
minute  granular  mass ;  and  third,  of  small  germinal 
vesicles  surrounded  with  the  minutely  granular  dark 
yolk-substance.'  Afterwards  the  ovisacs  are  said  to 
form  around  the  rudimentary  ova.  Here  again,  therefore, 
we  meet  with  mere  granules  or  molecules  as  the  first 
representatives  of  the  future  ova.  These  molecules, 
however,  appear  to  belong  to  the  yolk,  whereas  in  the 
Nematoid  ovarian  tube  those  which  first  appeared  were 
representatives  of  the  future  germinal  vesicles.  Even 
Dr.  Allen  Thomson,  who  is  quite  indisposed  to  believe 
that  cell  elements  can  spring  up  de  novo,  is  yet  neverthe- 
less compelled  to  make  the  following  statement  concern- 
ing the  origin  of  the  germinal  vesicle,  the  potential  part, 
as  he  and  others  believe,  of  the  egg  itself: — cThe  manner 
of  the  very  frst  origin-  of  the  germ  of  the  ovum  is  still  in- 
volved in  obscurity,  for  we  only  know  of  the  existence  of 
an  ovi-germ  when  the  germinal  vesicle  has  attained  an 
appreciable  size.  Whence  the  frst  germs  of  the  germinal 
'vesicle  proceed  can  as  yet  be  matter  only  of  conjecture.  .  .  . 
Here  observation  fails,  and  we  are  lost  in  the  region  of 
speculation.'  It  is  open  therefore  for  us  to  presume  that 
an  aggregation  of  granules,  such  as  he  himself  describes 
and  figures  as  occurring  in  the  thrush,  may  be  the  very 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  207 

first  rudiments  of  the  egg1  in  these  cases.  Certain  it 
is,  however,  as  he  and  almost  all  other  embryologists 
admit  that,  even  in  the  higher  animals,  the  yolk  is 
always  formed  by  a  mere  aggregation  of  granules  and 
of  a  mucilaginous  substance,  subsequently  becoming 
limited  by  a  vitelline  membrane.  And  yet  the  granular 
substance  of  the  yolk  constitutes,  by  its  segmentation, 
the  initial  embryonic  mass  of  the  future  animal.  In 
certain  animals,  indeed,  the  yolk  mass  is  apparently  all 
that  exists :  the  germinal  vesicle  seems  to  be  absent. 

Seeing  the  undecisive  nature  of  the  evidence  as  to 
the  precise  mode  of  origin  of  the  c  germinal  vesicle,'  it 
is  desirable  to  learn  whether  its  subsequent  fate  bears 
out  the  generally  prevalent  notion  of  its  immense  im- 
portance as  a  constituent  of  the  ovum.  What  follows 
refers  equally  to  ova  produce^  by  either  of  the  two 
methods  above  referred  to — to  those  which  have  a  free 
origin  within  tubular  organs,  or  to  those  arising  in  the 
midst  of  a  more  or  less  solid  organ. 

Before  the  mingling  of  the  contents  of  the  sperm- 
cells  with  the  granules  of  the  vitelline  substance — that 
is  before  fecundation2  has  taken  place — it  seems  to  be 

1  The  '  clear  point '  which  next  makes  its  appearance,  the  rudiment  of 
the  future  germinal  vesicle,  may  be  evolved  as  a  gradually  increasing 
dot  of  homogeneous  mucilage — after  the  same  fashion  as  the  nucleus  is 
now  known  to  appear  in  so  many  cells  which  are  in  process  of  evolution. 

2  It  may  be  well  to  quote  here  some  philosophical  remarks  of  Dr. 
Allen  Thomson  bearing  upon  the  phenomena  of  fecundation.     He  says : 
'  The  physiologist  agrees,  for  the  sake  of  convenience  of  expression,  to 
adopt  the  terms  power,  property,  force,  &c.,  to  denote  the  conditions 
necessary  for  the  occurrence  of  certain  actions  or  changes 


208  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  rule  for  the  germinal  vesicle  to  disappear.  Dr. 
Allen  Thomson  says : — c  In  some  animals,  as  Mam- 
malia and  Birds,  it  has  been  observed  that  shortly  be- 
fore the  diffluence  of  the  vesicle  its  delicate  wall  under- 
goes a  softening  on  approaching  solution,  so  as  to  make 
it  impossible  to  separate  the  vesicle  entire.  After  this, 
when  the  diffluence  is  complete,  the  contents  disappear 
from  the  situation  they  have  previously  occupied,  but 
what  becomes  of  them  has  not  yet  been  determined.' 
Thus,  at  all  events,  we  get  rid  of  the  only  element  of 
the  ovum  about  whose  precise  mode  of  origin  there  is 
any  doubt  or  uncertainty.  We  are  now  reduced  to  a 
mere  amorphous  mass  of  granular  material  dispersed 
through  a  homogeneous  basement  substance.  But  in 
the  midst  of  this  mass  there  shortly  arises  de  novo^  in 

The  fecundating  power  of  the  semen  is  an  expression  used  only  for 
convenience  to  denote  the  invariable  sequence  or  relation  as  cause 
and  effect  which  has  been  observed  to  subsist  between  the  contact  of 
spermatic  matter  with  the  ovum,  and  the  changes  in  the  latter  which 
follow  on  the  act  of  fecundation.  We  might  with  as  much  propriety 
have  given  a  name  to  a  separate  power  residing  in  the  egg  or  its  germ, 
which  render  it  susceptible  of  fecundation,  as  of  a  special  power  belong- 
ing to  the  semen  by  which  that  susceptibility  of  the  ovum  is  acted  upon. 
The  efficient  cause  of  the  process  of  fecundation  can  only  be  educed,  as 
in  all  physical  as  well  as  vital  changes,  from  a  perfect  knowledge  of  all 
its  phenomena,  and  the  statement  of  the  efficient  cause  of  such  actions 
is  only  the  expression  of  the  most  general  and  best  known  law  to  which 
a  full  acquaintance  with  the  phenomena  enables  them  to  be  reduced. 
Fecundation  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  purely  vital  change,  seeing  that  it 
takes  place  only  in  the  usual  conditions  of  vitality ;  but,  like  all  other 
vital  changes,  it  appears  more  probable  that  a  variety  of  conditions  of 
the  organic  matter,  rather  than  any  one  known  property  or  condition, 
are  necessary  for  its  occurrence.'— (Loc.  cit.  p.  138.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  209 

the  ova  of  most  animals,  a  new  vesicular  element  which 
is  called  the  c  embryo  cell/  This  does  not  appear  until 
after  the  process  of  fecundation,  and  just  anterior  to  the 


FIG.  15. 

Segmentation  of  the  Yolk  after  Fecundation, 
a,  b,  c.  Ovum,  of  Ascaris  nigrovenosa.     (Kolliker.) 
d.  That  of  A.  acuminata,  showing  later  stage.     (Bagge.) 

commencement  of  segmentation  in  the  yolk  mass.  This 
new  cell,  that  which  takes  the  place  of  the  germinal 
vesicle  after  fecundation,  is  generally  tolerably  distinct, 
and  nucleated,,  but  Dr.  Thomson  says 1 : — c  In  other 
instances  a  clear  spherule  or  space  only  is  observed  in 
the  place  of  the  embryo-cell,  and  in  a  few  animals  no 
clear  part  of  this  nature  has  yet  been  detected/  Here 
then  we  certainly  have  the  new  evolution  of  a  cell  or 
nucleus  in  the  midst  of  the  granular  yolk-substance 
after  a  fashion  with  which  we  are  not  unfamiliar  2.  But 

1  Loc.  cit.  p.  139. 

2  Much  interest  attaches  to  these  facts.     We  see  now,  in  respect  of 
the  presence  or  absence  of  an  embryo-cell,  how  close  is  the  correspond- 
ence between  these  reproductive  units  of  higher  animals  and  the  spores 
of  Algae,  Fungi,  and  Lichens,  or  the  reproductive  germs  of  the  lower 
Amoeba.     In  them  also,  as  we  have  seen,  the  presence  of  a  nucleus  was 
by  no  means  invariable ;   and  in  some  of  the  cases  where  it  did  exist 
(Hydrodicfyon,  Peziza,  &c.)  it  also  made  its  appearance,  at  first,  as  a  mere 
'clear  space.'     See  note,  p.  184. 

P 


210  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Dr.  Thomson  says, c  The  origin  of  the  embryo-cell  is  still 
involved  in  obscurity;'  and  when  he  adds,  cMost 
ovologists  are  disposed  to  connect  it  in  some  'way  or  other 
with  the  previously  existing  germinal  vesicle.,  or  some 
part  of  its  contents,  and  more  especially  the  nucleus/ 
we  can  only  recognize  in  this  statement  an  evidence  of 
the  enormous  amount  of  influence  which  the  old  doctrine 
concerning  the  potentiality  of  the  nucleus  once  exercised 
over  the  minds  of  physiologists.  As  Dr.  Thomson  frankly 
admits,  there  is  no  direct  evidence  that  can  be  produced 
in  favour  of  such  an  hypothesis :  it  would  probably 
never  have  been  advanced  had  it  not  been  for  the 
old  doctrines  concerning  the  marvellous  powers  of 
the  nucleus,  which  we  have  now  gradually  learned  to 
discard.  The  fact  that  segmentation  does  actually  com- 
mence in  certain  ova  where  no  nucleus  or  embryo-cell 
is  present — just  as  the  protoplasmic  contents  of  a  spore- 
case,  or  of  an  encysted  Protomyxa,  may  break  up  into 
separate  living  units  in  spite  of  the  absence  of  a  nu- 
cleus— should  go  far  to  convince  us  that  such  a  body  is 
not  in  the  least  necessary,  in  order  that  the  phenomena 
of  segmentation  and  development  may  be  initiated. 
Although,  therefore,  it  may  be  present  in  many  cases, 
and  may  seem  to  take  the  initiative  by  its  early  divi- 
sion, we  must  not  on  this  account  suppose  that  any 
influence  or  power  emanating  from  the  embryo  cell  is 
the  cause  of  the  segmentation  of  the  yolk-mass :  we 
should  rather  regard  both  sets  of  phenomena  as  merely 
associated  changes,  each  alike  being  referrible  to  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  211 

properties  of  the  matter  of  which  the  ovurn  is  composed. 
This,  too,  was  the  view  expressed  by  Professor  Huxley 
when  he  said  \  c  Neither  is  there  any  evidence  that  any 
attraction  or  other  influence  is  exercised  by  the  one 
over  the  other*  the  changes  which  each  subsequently 
undergoes,  though  they  are  in  harmony,  having  no 
causal  connexion  with  one  another,  but  each  proceed- 
ing, as  it  would  seem,  in  accordance  with  the  general 
determining  laws  of  the  organism/  Nevertheless,  from 
the  yoJk-mass  itself  (constituted,  as  we  have  seen, 
by  a  mere  aggregation  of  granules,  or  by  an  increasing 
mass  of  granular  mucilage)  there  is  produced,  as  a  result 
of  this  segmentation,  the  germinal  or  c  blastodermic' 
tissue2,  out  of  which,  by  a  continuous  series  of  changes 

1  Essay  previously  quoted,  '  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical 
Review,'  October  1853,  p.  386. 

2  Dr.  Thomson  says : — '  The  last  result  of  the  segmentation  is  the 
production   of  the  blastoderma  or  germinal  membrane  in  which*,  by 
other  changes,  the  rudiments  of  the  embryo  subsequently  make  their 
appearance.     According  to  most  ovologists,  the  last  globules  formed  by 
segmentation  are  the  nucleated  organized  cells  immediately  constituting 
the   blastoderma.     But  a   different   view  of  the  process,  as  it  occurs 
in  Mammalia,  has  been  taken  by  Bischoff,  and  is  very  decidedly  set 
forth  in  his  two  most  recent  works  on  the  development  of  the  guinea- 
pig  and    the    deer   respectively.      In   these   memoirs    he    makes    the 
announcement  that  '  the  last  resulting  spherules  formed  by  segmentation 
are  not  true  cells,  and  that  previous  to  the  formation  of  the  blastoder- 
mic   cells   the    yolk-germ   falls    completely   into    an  amorphous   or   homo- 
geneous finely  granular   substance,  out   of  which,  secondarily,  the   blasto- 
dermic    cells    are    produced    by    a    process    of    cyto-genesis.       It    seems 
probable  that,  in  the  different  classes  of  animals,  there  may  be  consider- 
able variety  in  the  degree  of  perfection  in  organization  or  advance  in 
cell  structure  to  which  the  segments  of  the  yelk  have  attained  at  the 

P  2 


2 1 2  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

— occurring  with  a  still  more  mysterious  regularity — 
there  is  gradually  evolved  the  future  organism,  however 
complex  J. 

Hitherto  we  have  considered  the  mode  of  origin  of 
spores,  germs,  and  ova,  but  if  we  turn  our  attention 

period  when  the  development  of  the  embryo  begins  to  manifest  itself. 
But  in  the  higher  animals,  at  least,  the  weight  of  evidence  appears  to  me 
in  favour  of  the  view  that  the  process  of  segmentation  results  directly 
in  the  formation  of  blastodermic  cells.  The  facts  now  established  by 
the  observations  of  Reichert  in  Entozoa,  in  1841,  of  Ransome  in  osseous 
fishes,  and  more  particularly  those  of  Remak  in  Batrachia,  that  a  deli- 
cate membrane  is  formed  over  the  surface  of  each  of  the  segments  as 
they  appear,  and  that  the  last  and  smallest  segments  possess  a  delicate 
membranous  envelope,  appear  to  show  that,  in  these  animals,  each  seg- 
ment has  the  structure  of  an  organized  cell,  and  is  very  similar  to,  if  not 
identical  with,  those  of  the  blastodermic  lamina.' 

We  shall  find,  hereafter,  that  the  mode  of  production  of  cells  described 
by  Bischoff  as  occurring  during  the  development  of  the  ova  of  the 
guinea-pig  and  of  the  deer,  can  be  almost  exactly  paralleled  by  a  similar 
production  of  cells,  in  certain  areas  of  the  '  pellicle'  which  forms  on  organic 
solutions.  In  these  cases,  also,  the  material  that  undergoes  change  is 
an  albuminous  basis  substance,  containing  a  multitude  of  newly  pro- 
duced granules  (plastide  particles  and  bacteria). 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  very  large  proportion  of  fatty  com- 
pounds which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  yolk  of  eggs,  and  also, 
as  previously  stated  (note,  p.  178),  in  the  reproductive  cells  of  many 
algse.  Many  of  these  fatty  products  seem  to  be  extremely  unstable,  and 
therefore  well  suited  to  initiate  developmental  changes.  It  is  in  the 
ovum  especially,  and  in  nerve  tissue,  that  complex  phosphuretted  fats 
are  met  with — and  it  is  here  also  that  developmental  and  metabolic 
changes  occur  to  the  most  notable  extent.  According  to  Dr.  Allen 
Thomson,  in  the  egg  of  the  common  fowl  'the  yolk  contains  little 
more  than  half  its  weight  of  water,  or  54  per  cent.  The  remaining 
46  parts  consist  of  about  17  of  albumen,  or  analogous  principles,  28 
of  oily  matter,  and  i^  of  salts.  These  last  are  chiefly  alkaline  muriates 
and  sulphates,  phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  traces  of  iron, 
^ulphur,  and  phosphorus.' — (Loc.  cit.  p.  61.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  213 

to  the  male  reproductive  elements,  both  in  Animals  and 
in  Plants,  we  shall  find  them  invariably  arising  out  of 
modifications  taking  place  in  the  protoplasmic  contents 
of  certain  cells  or  vesicles.  Thus  Wagner  and  Leuckart, 
after  pointing  out  that  spermatozoa  in  the  various  kinds 
of  animals  are  produced  separately  in  the  interior  of 
vesicular  elements,  as  was  first  made  known  to  us  by 
Kolliker,  say1: — clt  is  difficult  to  trace  the  intimate 
development  of  the  spermatozoa  in  the  interior  of  these 
vesicles;  but  It  appears  probable  that  It  Is  brought  about 
by  the  junction  of  molecular  corpuscles^  which  join  each 
other  linearly,  and  which  have  been  deposited  from 
the  contents  of  the  vesicles.'  With  regard  to  the 
precise  nature  of  the  c vesicles'  of  development, 
however,  there  is  some  uncertainty.  In  very  many 
cases  they  are  undoubtedly,  as  Koiliker  supposed, 
nuclei;  and  referring  to  this  view  Wagner  and  Leuc- 
kart say : — c  The  unity  in  the  mode  of  development  of 
the  spermatozoa  which  would  thus  be  established  is 
certainly  very  attractive;  but  we  dare  not  conceal  it 
from  ourselves  that  this  inference  from  analogy  is  the 
less  to  be  depended  upon,  since  the  genesis  of  the 
spermatozoa  in  the  Decapoda  furnishes  us  with  a  proof 
that  the  formation  of  these  elements  may  also  take 
place  immediately  in  the  interior  of  cells,  without 
the  nuclei  at  all  participating  in  it.'  All  the  known 
modes  of  origin  of  these  spermatic  bodies  may,  however, 

1  Art.  '  Semen,'  '  Cyclop,  of  Anat.  and  Physiol.'  vol.  iv.  p.  499. 


214  TJf-E  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

be  ranged  under  three  principal  heads,  which  are  thus 
spoken  of  by  the  authors  above  cited : — c  ist.  The 
cell  membrane  and  nucleus  of  the  formative  vesicles 
convert  themselves  immediately  into  the  spermatozoon, 
2nd.  The  nucleus  of  the  formative  vesicles  alone  meta- 
morphoses itself  into  the  spermatozoon.  3rd.  A  new 
formation,  which  takes  place  in  the  interior  of  the 
nucleus  (or  immediately  in  the  cell  cavity),  performs 
the  functions  of  a  spermatozoon/  But  it  appears  that 
of  those  produced  by  these  different  methods, c  the  sper- 
matozoa resulting  from  endogenous  formation  are  most 
highly  developed;  they  are  the  produce  of  a  perfectly 
new  generative  process;'  and  it  should  be  remarked 
also  that  this  mode  of  origination  is  far  more  frequently 
met  with  than  either  of  the  others. 

We  will  not  bring  forward  any  further  details  how- 
ever; we  will  say  nothing  concerning  the  mode  and 
origin  of  antherozoids1  in  the  lower  members  of  the 
Vegetable  Kingdom,  or  of  the  pollen  grains  in  flowering 
plants,  since  these  details  would,  in  essence,  be  little 
more  than  a  repetition  of  modes  of  origin  of  indepen- 
dent units,  similar  to  what  have  been  already  described. 
The  instances  already  cited,  although  scarcely  one 
tithe  of  those  which  might  have  been  quoted,  are 
abundantly  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose.  Of  them- 
selves they  almost  force  us  to  come  to  a  conclusion 
similar  to  that  at  which  we  have  already  arrived.  The 

1  See  'Botanische  Zeitung'  for  March  25  and  April  I,  1853;  also 
'Ann.  des  Sc.  Nat.'  1852,  and  Lindley's  'Vegetable  Kingdom,'  p.  19. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  215 

history  of  the  development  of  germs,  spores,  ova,  and 
spermatic  elements,  tends  to  show  us  most  convincingly 
that  independent  and  even  active,  newly-formed  Living 
Units,  have  at  first  no  trace  of  a  cell-wall — this  being 
a  product  which  is  subsequently  formed.  Then,  we 
have  ascertained,  also,  that  some  of  these  when  first 
they  present  themselves  exhibit  no  trace  of  a  nucleus — 
such  being  the  case  with  the  actively  moving  progeny 
of  Protomyxa  and  many  other  organisms.  The  germs 
or  spores  of  these  are  mere  masses  of  living  matter — 
protoplasmic  in  nature.  They  present  no  trace  of  cell- 
wall  or  of  bounding  membrane,  and  there  is  a  similar 
absence  of  anything  like  a  nucleus  or  nucleolus.  It 
matters  not,  therefore,  if  in  certain  other  cases  (as  in  the 
formation  of  spores  within  the  asci  of  Peziza  and  other 
fungi)  we  do  find  nuclei  making  their  appearance  in 
the  midst  of  the  living  matter,  before  this  has  begun 
to  show  any  traces  of  its  approaching  segmentation. 
Such  primary  appearance  of  nuclei,  when  it  occurs, 
should  not  be  regarded  as  a  necessary  preliminary,  or 
one  which  is  in  any  way  causative  of  those  changes 
which  are  about  to  follow.  How  could  we  come  to 
such  a  conclusion,  when,  in  so  many  instances,  similar 
processes  of  segmentation  may  be  seen  taking  place  in 
living  matter  where  no  such  nuclei  exist!  This  matter 
itself,  therefore,  perfectly  homogeneous  save  for  the 
presence  of  a  few  minute  granules  scattered  here  and 
there,  is  the  real  elementary  life-stuff' — that  which  already 
possesses  the  properties  of  a  living  thing,  and  which 


2l6  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

is  capable  (by  virtue  of  its  own  inherent  tendency  to 
undergo  a  process  of  different iation)  of  taking  on  the 
real  cell  form.  Before  a  nucleus  is  evolved,  whilst 
still  without  a  bounding  membrane,  the  simple  living 
unit  (plastide)  is  able  to  assimilate  nutritive  material 
and  grow  j  it  may  be  able  to  move  from  place  to  place 
and  continually  vary  in  its  form ;  it  is  able  to  divide 
and  reproduce  its  kind.  In  course  of  time  a  cell-wall 
may  consolidate  around  it,  and  a  nucleus  may  arise  in 
its  interior.  The  Cell  is,  therefore,  seen  to  be  only  a 
developed  formj  a  more  visibly  complex  condition, 
which  a  simpler  but  already  living  and  independent 
Plastide  may  or  may  not  assume. 

Some  of  the  opinions  we  have  just  expressed  were 
uttered  by  Alexander  Braun  in  1851,  when  he  said1: — 
cThe  cell  is  thus  a  little  organism  which  forms  its 
covering  outside,  as  the  mussel,  the  snail,  or  the  crab  does 
its  shell.  The  contents  enclosed  by  these  envelopes  form 
the  essential  and  original  part  of  the  cell,  in  fact  must 
be  regarded  as  a  cell,  before  the  covering  is  acquired. 
From  the  contents  issues  all  the  physiological  activity 
of  the  cell,  while  the  membrane  is  a  product  deposited 
outside,  a  secreted  structure/which  only  passively  shares 
the  life,  forming  the  medium  of  intercourse  between 
the  interior  and  the  external  world,  at  once  separating 
and  combining  the  neighbouring  cells,  affording  pro- 
tection and  solidity  to  the  individual  cell  in  connection 
with  the  entire  tissue.  Hence  the  development  of  the 
1  Loc.  cit.  p.  155. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  217 

cell-coat,  as  a  product  of  cellular  activity,  always  stands 
in  inverse  proportion  to  the  physiological  activity  of 
the  cell.  In  youth,  thin,  soft,  and  extensible,  the  cell 
coat  allows  abundant  nutrition  and  advancing  growth ; 
subsequently,  thickened  and  therewith  hardened  by  the 
deposit  of  lamellae1,  it  compresses  the  contents  within 
continually  narrower  boundaries,  more  and  more  ex- 
cludes intercourse  with  the  external  world,  and  puts 
a  term  to  growth/ 

Taking  that  view  of  the  case,  therefore,  which  would 
alone  seem  tenable  in  our  present  state  of  knowledge, 
it  could  not  be  imagined  that  any  changes  occurring 
in  a  simple  living  unit,  or  plastide,  would  be  essen- 
tially altered  in  character  because  its  external  layers 
had  become  condensed  into  a  so-called  cell-membrane. 
It  is  useless,  also,  to  resort  to  the  nucleus  as  an  element 
possessing  a  mysterious  power  of  its  own,  and  to  attri- 
bute, as  was  formerly  the  case,  all  the  important  phe- 
nomena occurring  within  a  Cell  to  the  effects  of  its 
influence.  We  are  told  by  Nageli2  that  whole  families 
of  plants  are  devoid  of  anything  like  a  nucleus,  and 

1  This  more  especially  refers  to  the  thickening  and  condensation  of 
the  wall  which  takes  place  in  many  vegetable  cells. 

2  Speaking  of  the  occurrence  of  this  previously  supposed  necessary 
element  of  the  cell,  Braun  says  (loc.  cit.  p.  1 74) : — '  Nageli's  extensive 
researches   have   demonstrated   its    occurrence  in  all  divisions   of  the 
vegetable  kingdom ;    only  in  particular  families   of  the  Algje,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  Palmellaceze,  Chlorococcaceae,  Oscilatorineae,  and  Nosto- 
chinese,  as  also  in  the  large-celled  Cladopbora,  and  the  unicellular  Algae 
with  unlimited  growth  of  the  cell  (Vaucheria,  Codium,  Caulerpa),  no 
trace  of  a  nucleus  has  yet  been  discovered.' 


2i8  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

yet  all  the  ordinary  vegetative  and  reproductive  pheno- 
mena go  on  within  the  chambers  of  which  they  are 
composed.  And  if  we  are  still  to  call  these  non- 
nucleated  chambers  c  cells/  we  nevertheless  find  similar 
vegetative  and  reproductive  phenomena  taking  place 
within  structures  which  certainly  have  no  right  to  such 
a  name.  It  appears  that  Leptomhus^  Saprolegma^  Vau- 
cheria,  Codlum^  Eryopsh^  Caulerpa,  and  perhaps  other  Algse 
as  well  as  Fungi  are  branched  filiform  organisms  pre- 
senting no  trace  of  a  cellular  structure,  although  by 
a  strange  perversion  of  language  they  have  been  spoken 
of  as  c  branched  unicellular  organisms'  by  those  who 
were  anxious  to  interpret  all  facts  so  as  to  make  them 
yield  to  the  requirements  of  an  exclusively  c  cellular' 
Theory  of  Organization.  At  a  definite  stage  in  the 
life  of  such  organisms  a  partition  extends  across,  near 
the  extremity  of  certain  of  the  filaments,  so  as  to  cut 
off  a  small  terminal  chamber.  This  chamber  enlarges 
rapidly,  and  its  contents  undergo  changes  such  as  we 
have  described  in  Acblya^  speedily  leading  to  the  forma- 
tion of  actively  moving  zoospores.  Are  such  changes 
due  to  the  properties  of  the  living  matter  itself,  or 
are  they  attributable  to  the  mere  chamber  in  which 
it  is  enclosed  ?  Has  the  growth  of  the  partition  sud- 
denly given  rise  to  a  potentiality  previously  non- 
existent? Again,  when  the  Protomyxa  contracts,  when 
its  living  matter  devoid  of  a  nucleus  condenses  ex- 
ternally, so  as  to  form  a  cell-wall  or  cyst,  are  the 
phenomena  of  segmentation  which  subsequently  occur 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  219 

still  to  be  considered  as  dependent  upon  the  properties 
of  the  living  matter  itself  under  the  influence  of  its 
medium,  or  are  we  to  suppose  that  suddenly,  with  the 
assumption  of  this  pseudo  c  cell '  form,  there  has  arisen 
an  entirely  new  force  capable  of  inducing  certain  de- 
velopmental changes  not  otherwise  producible?  The 
answers  to  these  questions  cannot,  we  think,,  be  doubt- 
ful; and  yet  if  we  were  to  accept  some  theories  at 
present  in  vogue,  we  should  have  to  believe  in  the 
truth  of  the  latter  assumption1. 

All  the  phenomena  of  so-called  c endogenous  cell- 
formation'  are  therefore,  if  rightly  interpreted,  capable 
of  strengthening  our  belief  in  the  necessity  for  the 
existence  of  mere  matter  of  a  particular  kind  as  the 
physiological  basis  of  all  life-phenomena.  They  equally 
lead  us  to  reject  as  preposterous  the  doctrine  of 
Virchow  that  the  cell  is  the  ultimate  vital  unit,  or, 
as  he  expresses  it,  that  c  the  cell  is  really  the  ultimate 
morphological  unit  in  which  there  is  any  manifestation 


1  It  may  be  well  at  this  stage  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
views  of  Dr.  Beale  are  so  far  quite  in  accordance  with  those  above 
expressed.  He  believes  in  the  formless  nature  of  primitive  living  matter, 
and  in  the  absence  of  any  special  functions  or  importance  attaching  to 
the  nucleus.  We  have  already  seen  that  he  regards  the  cell-wall,  when 
present,  as  a  dead  and  inert  appanage  of  the  living  matter  within.  Thus 
the  only  active  potential  part  is  the  living  but  structureless  germinal 
matter.  He  says,  moreover,  'it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  at  all 
periods  of  life,  in  certain  parts  of  the  textures  and  organs,  and  in  the 
nutrient  fluids,  are  masses  of  germinal  matter,  destitute  of  any  cell-wall, 
and  exactly  resembling  those  of  which  at  an  early  period  the  embryo  is 
entirely  composed.'  See 'Protoplasm,' second  ed.  pp.  45-47,  48,  59.  • 


220  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE, 

of  life,  and  that  we  must  not  transfer  the  seat  of 
real  action  to  any  point  beyond  the  cell.'  All  these 
instances  of  endogenous  cell-formation  which,  indeed, 
are  frequently  spoken  of  as  examples  of  'free  cell- 
formation' — do,  in  spite  of  their  having  taken  place 
in  what  are  called  c  cells,'  lead  us  on  by  insensible 
gradations  to  those  purest  and  most  unquestionable 
instances  of  free  cell -formation,  in  which  we  may  find 
new  living  units,  or  plastides,  arising  in  homogeneous 
blastemata,  and  independently  altogether  of  pre-exist- 
ing cells. 

As  we  have  already  endeavoured  to  show,  it  would 
be  quite  unreasonable  to  expect  to  get  evidence  of  the 
genesis  of  minute  though  fully  formed  Cells  in  blas- 
temata. This  was  the  old  point  of  view — and  one 
which  was  more  justifiable  in  the  days  of  Schleiden  and 
Schwann.  Now,  however,  knowing  as  we  do  that  a  cell 
with  its  cell -wall  and  nucleus  is  a  product  of  evolution, 
we  must  go  back  to  formless  matter,  if  we  wish  to 
trace  out  the  origin  of  the  cell.  We  must  look  for 
the  appearance  of  mere  specks — minutest  particles  of 
living  matter— which,  continually  growing  in  size,  may 
ultimately  take  on  the  form  of  cells,  after  the  fashion 
already  described. 

We  are  thus  led  to  enquire  into  the  truth  of  a  doctrine 
long  maintained  by  Charles  Robin,  though  one  which 
has  been  as  warmly  repudiated  by  Virchow  and  his 
school.  The  former  believes  that  simple  living  units 
are  produced  de  novo  in  blastemata,  and  he  maintains 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  221 

that  there  is  a  strong  anatomical  resemblance — a  per- 
fect similarity  in  fact — between  the  earlier  stages  of 
all  kinds  of  pus  and  mucus  corpuscles,  and  the  white 
corpuscles  of  the  blood  \  He  accordingly  uses  the  word 
c  leucocyte'  as  a  generic  appellation  for  the  various 
living  units  of  this  type  which  are  to  be  met  with 
either  as  physiological  or  pathological  tenants  of  the 
different  fluids  of  the  body.  And  although  it  is  not 
denied  that  such  units  are  capable  of  undergoing  rapid 
multiplication  by  processes  of  fission  and  gemmation, 
they  are,  as  Robin  maintains,  also  capable  of  being 
evolved  de  novo  in  the  several  fluids  of  the  body. 

M.  Onimus 2  has  lately  recorded  some  very  carefully 
conducted  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing more  satisfactory  evidence  as  to  the  mode  of  origin 
of  leucocytes.  He  found  that  when  serosity  was 
taken  as  soon  as  possible  from  a  rapidly  formed  blister, 
and  then  filtered,  no  leucocytes,  and  only  a  very  few 
epithelial  scales,  were  recognizable  by  the  aid  of  the 
microscope  on  the  filter;  whilst  the  fluid  which  had 
passed  through  was  never  found  to  contain  any  formed 
element,  leucocytic  or  epithelial3.  But,  whenever  the 
serosity  had  been  taken  from  the  blister  one  hour 
after  its  effusion,  then,  almost  invariably,  a  certain 
number  of  leucocytes  were  found  on  the  filter,  and  at 

1  '  Sur  quelques  points  de  1'Anatomie  et  de  la  Physiologic  des  Leuco- 
cytes ou  Globules  Blancs  de  Sang.'     Brown-Sequard's  '  Journal  de  la 
Physiologic,'  torn.  ii.  1^59  p.  41. 

2  '  Journal  de  1'Anat.  et  de  la  Physiol.'  1867. 

*  The  magnifying  power  employed,  is  unfortunately  not  stated. 


£22  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  same  time,  M.  Onimus  says,  some  of  them  passed 
through  the  filter  and  were  recognizable  in  the  filtered 
fluid.  The  recently  effused  serosity  was,  therefore, 
always  made  use  of  in  his  subsequent  experiments, 
after  he  had  satisfied  himself  that  such  serosity  appeared 
to  be  quite  homogeneous  and  to  contain  no  formed 
elements  of  any  kind1.  Small  portions  of  this  fluid 
were  enclosed  in  little  bags  of  gold-beater's  skin,  firmly 
secured,  and  these  were  then  inserted  beneath  the  skin 
of  rabbits,  in  order  to  ensure  the  submission  of  the  fluid 
to  the  requisite  temperature.  The  contents  of  the  bags 
were  examined  after  different  intervals ;  and  before  the 
bags  were  opened  they  were  subjected  to  the  action  of 
a  full  stream  of  water,  in  order  to  wash  away  every  trace 
of  formed  element  (derived  from  the  wounded  tissues  of 
the  rabbit)  which  might  have  adhered  to  any  part  of  their 
surface.  When  a  portion  of  the  fluid  was  examined 
after  the  bag  had  remained  for  twelve  hours  beneath 

1  He  ascertained,  by  trial  with  the  older  fluids  containing  leucocytes, 
that  when  some  of  this  serosity  had  been  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed 
for  five  or  six  hours  in  a  small  conical  glass,  its  upper  strata  had,  by  this 
time,  become  clear,  owing  to  the  leucocytes  having  gravitated  to  the 
narrow  lower  portion  of  the  vessel.  When  the  recent  serosity  however 
was  tested  in  the  same  way,  he  invariably  found  that  the  last  drops  of 
the  fluid  in  the  bottom  of  the  glass  were  quite  devoid  of  leucocytes,  and 
indeed  of  all  trace  of  solid  matter,  however  minute.  He  therefore  con- 
cluded that  such  a  fluid  was  really  a  homogeneous  blastema.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  exceedingly  minute  particles  of  living 
matter  less  than  30ooo"  *n  diameter  might  not  sink  in  the  way  de- 
scribed, and  that  such  particles  easily  make  their  way  through  an 
ordinary  filter. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  223 

the  rabbit's  skin,  it  was  found  to  be  already  slightly 
opalescent,  owing  to  the  presence  of  myriads  of  minute 
particles.  After  twenty-four  hours,  the  fluid  in  other 
bags  was  found  to  have  become  whitish  and  cloudy — 
from  its  containing,  in  addition  to  the  particles, 
numerous  well-formed  leucocytes.  When  examined 
after  a  period  of  thirty-six  hours,  the  fluid  was  in- 
variably found  to  be  quite  white  and  milky,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  myriads  of  leucocytes,  which  ex- 
hibited the  characteristic  amoeboid  movements,  and 
seemed  to  differ  in  no  essential  respect  from  ordinary 
young  pus  corpuscles  or  from  white  corpuscles  of  the 
blood  i. 

1  M.  Onimus  found  that  the  nature  of  the  blastema  employed  modified 
the  results  obtained  in  a  most  remarkable  manner.  He  says : — '  All  the 
experiments  we  have  hitherto  recorded  are  true  only  on  condition  that 
the  fibrine  is  not  coagulated ;  for  neither  leucocytes  nor  any  other  kind 
of  anatomical  elements  are  produced  in  the  serum  of  blisters  whose 
fibrine  has  been  coagulated.'  These  results  are  most  interesting  to  the 
physician,  and  harmonize  well  with  his  own  experience.  He  does 
not  expect  to  meet  with  pus  corpuscles  in  an  effusion  into  the  pleura 
which  has  not  been  caused  by  inflammation,  whilst  he  is  quite  prepared 
to  find  them  in  abundance  in  an  inflammatory  effusion.  In  the  former 
case  the  fluid  would  not  contain  both  the  protein  compounds  necessary 
for  the  production  of  fibrine,  whilst  in  the  latter  it  would  probably  contain 
them  in  large  quantity.  Although  it  is  fully  granted  that  the  pus  corpus- 
cles in  an  empyematous  fluid  may  be  derived  in  part  from  wandering 
white  blood  corpuscles,  and  in  part  from  subdivision  of  any  of  the  nuclear 
elements  of  the  tissues  in  contact  with  the  fluid,  I  fully  believe  that 
another,  and  perhaps  a  very  large  section  of  them,  have  been  evolved 
de  novo  in  the  blastema  itself.  Corpuscles  derived  in  either  of  these 
ways  may  of  course  multiply  indefinitely  in  the  fluid  by  processes  of 
gemmation.  In  these  various  ways  may  we  account  for  the  presence  of  the 
untold  legions  of  leucocytes  which  are  met  with  in  inflammatory  fluids. 


224  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Now  by  these  experiments  Onimus  seems  to  have 
shown  quite  conclusively  that  the  corpuscles  met  with 
in  his  experimental  fluids  had  not  been  derived  from 
the  fission  of  any  visible  pre-existing  cells.  It  seems 
almost  equally  certain  that  they  did  not  even  originate 
from  particles  which  were  recognizable  by  the  micro 
scopic  powers  employed,  since  the  fluids  were  at  first, 
to  all  appearance,  perfectly  homogeneous.  Either, 
therefore,  the  minute  particles  which  were  seen  at  a 
later  stage  must  have  originated  owing  to  some 
primitive  formative  process  taking  place  in  a  really 
homogeneous  organic  solution,  or  else  the  fluid,  seem- 
ingly homogeneous,  in  reality  contained  the  most 
minute  particles  (microscopically  invisible),  derived  in 
some  unknown  way  from  the  previously  existing  pro- 
toplasmic elements  of  the  tissues 1.  Further  than  this 
we  cannot  go  by  direct  observation — reason  alone  must 
be  our  guide  in  the  selection  of  the  one  or  the  other 
alternative.  We,  however,  incline  to  the  former  view; 

1  We  are  quite  unable  to  disprove  such  a  supposition.  It  is  but  the 
germ  theory  under  another  form,  and  being  based  only  upon  analogical 
evidence  it  belongs  to  the  region  of  pure  hypothesis.  Those  who  would 
be  inclined  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  such  infinitesimal  off-castings 
from  pre-existing  cells  are,  however,  no  more  able  to  prove  that  organic 
units,  seemingly  originating  de  novo,  are  in  reality  derived  from  such 
supposed  invisible  germs,  than  we  are  to  disprove  their  hypothesis.  We 
must  be  guided  therefore  by  evidence  of  an  indirect  nature,  and  those 
who  at  present  still  doubt  the  probability  of  leucocytes  originating  de 
novo,  may,  perhaps,  be  more  inclined  to  admit  that  the  tendency  of  the 
evidence  above  adduced  is  strongly  in  favour  of  the  actuality  of  such 
a  process,  after  they  have  read  other  portions  of  this  work,  relating  to 
the  de  novo  origination  of  wholly  independent  living  things. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  225 

and  we  believe  it  to  be  in  the  highest  degree  probable 
that  the  fully  developed  leucocytes  or  plastides  which 
were  seen  in  the  later  examinations  had  arisen  out 
of  the  growth  and  development  of  the  mere  organic 
specks  met  with  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  enquiry. 

This  latter  view  receives  the  strongest  support  from 
observations  that  have  been  made  as  to  the  nature  and 
mode  of  origin  of  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  1 
have  obtained  some  very  striking  evidence  on  this  sub- 
ject from  the  study  of  specimens  of  blood  taken  from 
two  persons  suffering  from  Leucocythaemia,  though  I  had 
previously  been  tending  towards  the  same  conclusion 
from  a  careful  study  of  its  condition  in  other  states  of 
disease  in  which  the  white  corpuscles  existed  in  undue 
proportion.  In  these  two  cases  the  number  of  the  white 
was  equal  to  that  of  the  red  corpuscles :  instead  of  the 
two  kinds  of  elements  existing  in  the  normal  propor- 
tion of  about  one  of  the  former  to  three  hundred  of  the 
latter.  The  other  most  striking  feature  in  the  speci- 
mens of  blood  from  these  patients  was  the  extreme 
variability  in  the  size  of  the  white  corpuscles — some 
being  nearly  twice  as  big  as  usual,  whilst  others  were 
seen  of  all  intermediate  sizes  between  this  and  a  mere 
protoplasmic  speck  4  0  *  0  0"  in  diameter.  The  corpuscles 
also  presented  different  aspects,  the  largest  of  them 
appeared  to  possess  a  cellular  structure — there  were 
slight  evidences  of  a  boundary  wall,  and  numerous 
large  protein  granules  within,  more  or  less  completely 
concealing  a  faint  ovoid  nuclear-looking  body.  This 


226  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE, 

granular  appearance  seemed  to  become  more  and  more 
marked  as  the  corpuscles  became  larger,  and  the  nucleus 
also  became  more  and  more  distinct,  though  only  ap- 
pearing as  a  space  free  from  granules.  The  corpuscles 
which  were  about  ^-gV*/'  *n  diameter,  as  well  as  all  those 
that  were  of  smaller  size,  presented  none  of  these  charac- 
ters. They  were,  in  fact,  not  cells  but  plastides — solid 
homogeneous  bits  of  protoplasm,  exhibiting  very  slow 


FIG.  1 6. 

Showing  the  different  stages  in  the  development  of  white  blood 
corpuscles,  as  seen  in  blood  from  a  case  of  Leucocythsemia.  All 
gradational  sizes  to  be  seen  from  a  mere  homogeneous  speck  of 
protoplasm  ^Ol6o"  in  diameter  up  to  that  of  a  corpuscle  of  the 
ordinary  size.  Those  under  -^oW"  *n  diameter  are  homogeneous 
bits  of  protoplasm,  showing  only  a  very  few  granules  and  no 
nucleus  or  distinct  bounding  wall,  x  600. 

amoeboid  variations  in  shape1.  There  was  no  break 
whatever  in  the  continuity  of  the  series ;  all  gradations 
in  size  could  be  and  were  measured,  from  the  mere 
plastide  particle  4 0 ; 0 Q"  in  diameter,, up  to  the  fully 
developed  corpuscle ;  and  until  the  size  above  indicated 

1  The  amoeboid  movements  of  the  white  corpuscles,  however,  are  not 
generally  very  marked  in  blood  taken  from  Leucocythaemic  patients. 
They  have  often  seemed  to  be  much  less  obvious  than  usual — a  large 
number  of  the  corpuscles  remaining  for  a  long  time  more  or  less 
spherical. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  22  7 

was  reached  we  had  to  do  with  mere  bits  of  growing 
protoplasm,  or  plastides,  differing  from  one  another 
in  no  other  respect  except  that  of  size1.  But  in 
those  corpuscles  which  exceeded  ^Vs"  tne  protoplasm 
gradually  became  granular,  and  they  then  began  to 
exhibit  changes  which  appear  characteristic  of  age  and 
approaching  degeneration 2.  Then,  also,  the  nucleus 
seemed  to  be  evolved  as  a  growing  spherule  of  homo- 
geneous matter,  without  distinct  boundary  wall — and 
therefore  appearing  as  a  mere  circular  space  gradually 
increasing  in  size  amongst  refractive  granules,  which 
also  grew  larger  and  larger.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to 
recognize  in  its  earlier  stages  and  when  it  is  very  minute 
in  size :  there  can  be  little  doubt,  however,  that  it  is 
evolved  after  the  same  fashion  as  the  nucleus  in  many 
vegetable  cells  3. 

Whether  the   minutest    specks  of  protoplasm  seen 

1  Since  the  above  was  written  I  find  that  Dr.  Hughes  Bennett  has 
alluded  (Lancet,  1863,  vol.  ii.,  p.  378  and  fig.  61)  to  the  occurrence  of 
bodies  of  different  sizes  in  the  blood  of  certain  Leucocytluemic  patients. 
Our  interpretation  of  the  appearances  is,  however,  quite  different,  since 
he  regards  the  smaller  particles  as  'nuclei'  which  have  been  liberated 
from  the  white  corpuscles. 

2  I  have  again  and   again   noticed   the  results  of  an  evolution  of 
this  kind  (though  more  marked  in  degree")  which  appears  to  take  place 
in  white  corpuscles,  after  the  death   of  the  individual.     In  autopsies 
made  36  or  48  hours  after  death,  I  have  frequently  found  on  examina- 
tion of  the  pia  mater  that  the  white  corpuscles  had  assumed  a  most 
distinctly  cellular  appearance — each  cell  containing  one  or  perhaps  two 
well-defined  ovoidal  nuclei  and  a  variable  number  of  protein  granules. 
In  these  cases  the  corpuscles  have  a  distinctly  vesicular  appearance,  and 
the  nuclei  also  seem  to  be  bounded  by  a  distinct  wail. 

3  See  note,  p.  184. 


228  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

had  been  evolved  out  of  the  fluid  plasma  of  the  lymph ; 
whether,  as  such,  they  had  been  introduced  into  the 
lymph,  from  the  lymphatic  glands  and  other  sources; 
or  whether  they  had  been  thrown  off  by  a  process  of 
gemmation  from  the  pre-existing  white  corpuscles 
themselves,  we  have  no  evidence  to  enable  us  posi- 
tively to  decide,  although  it  seems  that  the  facts  at 
present  in  our  possession  are  most  favourable  to  the 
first  mode  of  explanation.  We  have,  however,  in  these 
facts  much  stronger  evidence  to  show  that  the  fully 
developed  white  corpuscles  have  grown  out  of  the  mere 
specks  of  living  matter  J ;  that  these,  even  when  they 

1  And,  therefore,  evidence  tending  to  upset  the  notion  generally  pre- 
valent amongst  physiologists,  that  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood 
have  been  produced  by  modifications  which  have  taken  place  in 
lymphatic  corpuscles  as  starting  points — these  bodies  being  not  less 
than  -3-5^"  in  diameter. 

There  are  other  reasons  also  against  this  mode  of  origin  of  the 
white  corpuscles  which  have  been  advanced  by  Ch.  Robin.  He  says 
(loc.  cit.  p.  49)  : — '  L'existence  des  leucocytes  dans  le  sang  de  I'embryon 
a  une  <$poque  ou  les  lymphatiques  manquent  encore,  montre  qu'il  en 
natt  dans  les  vaisseaux  sanguins,  et  que,  chez  I'embryon,  du  moins, 
ceux  du  sang  ne  proviennent  pas  necessairement  de  la  lymphe.  .  .  .  Leur 
presence  dans  le  canal  thoracique  k  tous  les  Sges  montre  qu'il  en  nait 
pendant  toute  la  vie  dans  les  lymphatiques,  puisque  ceux  de  ces  derniers 
arrivent  dans  le  sang  avec  la  lymphe.  Comme  on  tfouve  des  leucocytes 
dans  les  reseaux  et  les  conduits  lymphatiques,  du  pied  du  testicule  etc., 
avant  leur  arrive'e  aux  ganglions  correspondants  il  est  manifest  aussi  que 
ce  ne  sont  pas  ces  derniers  organes  qui  seraient  specialement  charges  de 
les  former,  et  qu'il  naisse  dans  le  liquide  meme  qui  les  renferme,  c'est 
a  dire  dans  toutes  les  parties  du  systeme  lymphatique  probablement.  .  .  . 
D'autre  part,  c'est  apres  une  hypothese  contredite  par  les  faits  les  plus 
£lementaires  qu'on  a  pu  admettre  que  produire  cette  espece  d'element  ana- 
tomique  etait  1'usage,  le  rule  que  tel  ou  tel  organe  etait  charge  de  remplir.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  229 

have  nearly  attained  their  full  size,  are  still  (although 
units  exhibiting  a  distinct  vitality  of  their  own)  mere 
structureless  bits  of  protoplasm,  without  cell-wall  and 
without  nucleus — differing,  in  fact,  in  no  respect  from 
the  Vrotamceb-e  of  Professor  Haeckel,  except  that  they 
are  subordinate  parts  of  a  higher  organism,  and  there- 
fore do  not  lead  an  entirely  independent  existence. 
It  seems  evident  also  that  such  homogeneous  masses 
of  matter  (plastides),  already  exhibiting  vital  character- 
istics, are  afterwards  capable  of  evolving  a  nucleus,  and 
of  assuming  that  cellular  form  without  which  it  was 
formerly  supposed  no  vital  manifestations  could  occur. 

Such  a  mode  of  origination  of  living  units,  together 
with  their  subsequent  evolution,  affords  perhaps  the 
best  illustration  that  can  be  given  of  the  birth  of 
cells  de  no<vo  in  blastemata.  Other  evidence  of  vari- 
ous kinds  can  however  be  adduced  tending  towards 
the  same  conclusion,  and  to  this  we  will  now  briefly 
allude.  When  working  at  the  anatomy  of  a  diseased 
spinal  cord  in  the  year  1866,  before  my  faith  in 
Virchow's  doctrines  had  been  notably  shaken,  I  was 
much  struck  by  certain  appearances  met  with  through- 
out the  degenerated  portions  of  a  cord  in  which  the 
interstitial  fibrous  tissue  had  become  abnormally  in- 
creased in  quantity.  As  in  such  tissue  generally,  there 
was  a  very  great  increase  in  the  number  of  nuclei,  and 
although  very  many  of  them  appeared  about  ^jVzr"  in 
diameter,  there  were  others  even  larger  than  this,  and 
others  still  in  great  abundance  representing  every 


230  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

intermediate  size  between  these  and  a  mere  granular 
speck  or  dot  about  40^00"  in  diameter.  In  an  account 
of  this  case  published  shortly  afterwards 1  there  occurs 
the  following  passage : — c  The  large  nuclei  were  appar- 
ently unconnected  with  fibres,  and  all  intermediate 
sizes  could  be  traced  between  them  and  the  small 
dot-like  forms.  They  existed  in  the  greatest  abund- 
ance, and  seemed  to  represent  only  different  ages  of 
one  and  the  same  element.  All  alike  became  deeply 
stained  with  carmine  V  I  have  since  repeatedly  seen 
similar  appearances  in  other  specimens  of  diseased 
nerve  tissue.  It  is  impossible  to  say  positively,  of 
course,  whether  the  minute  dots,  the  mere  formless 
specks  of  living  matter,  had  been  given  off  bodily,  as 
buds,  from  pre-existing  living  matter,  or  whether  they 
had  originated  de  novo  out  of  fluid  plasma.  The  proba- 
bilities are  certainly,  to  say  the  least,  as  much  in  favour 
of  the  one  mode  of  origin  as  of  the  other  j  and  even 
if  they  had  proceeded  from  previously  living  matter, 

1  '  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,'  1867,  vol.  1.,  '  On  a  Case  of 
Concussion  -  Lesion,   with   extensive  Secondary   Degenerations   of  the 
Spinal  Cord.' 

2  At  the  time  I  was  somewhat  puzzled  to  understand  how  the  large 
nucleated  granulation  corpuscles,  which  were  also  so  numerous,  could 
have  originated.     Acknowledging  the  difficulty,  it  was  then  suggested 
that  the  cells  had  become  developed  around  some  of  the  originally  free 
'  nuclei,'  and  had  afterwards  undergone  a  rapid  process  of  fatty  degene- 
ration.    Now,  however,  I  feel  much  more  inclined  to  believe  that  some 
of  the  original  'nuclei'  underwent  a  rapid  process  of  growth,  that  each  of 
these  subsequently  developed  a  nucleus  in  its  interior,  and  then  underwent 
a  process  of  degeneration.     (See  loc.  cit.  PI.  XL  fig.  20.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  23  I 

this,  though  a  mode  of  origin  of  new  organic  units 
which  has  been  long  spoken  of  by  Dr.  Beale,  is  not 
one  which  has  been  much  mentioned  by  Virchow  and 
others  of  the  Cellular  School  of  Pathology.  They  speak 
principally  of  cell  multiplication  taking  place  by  equal 
division  of  pre-existing  cells  or  nuclei — a  mode  of 
reproduction  which,  though  undoubtedly  very  common, 
does  not,  in  my  opinion,  play  such  an  important  and 
almost  exclusive  part  in  tissue  growth  as  has  been 
represented,  and  which  does  not,  moreover,  enable  us 
to  account  for  many  appearances  that  are  frequently 
met  with. 

Cells  may  also  originate  after  another  fashion  in  the 
human  body,  as  I  have  satisfied  myself  from  a  most 
careful  study  of  the  results  of  inflammation  when 
occurring  on  the  pericardium,  or  lining  membrane  of 
the  heart.  It  appears  that  small  nuclei-like  bodies,  or 
plastides,  about  45100"  in  diameter  originate  by  a  direct 
process  of  differentiation,  from  the  homogeneous  and 
tenacious  so-called  c  lymph'  which  is  produced  on  the 
surface  of  the  serous  membrane1.  This  structureless 
lymph-like  matter  is  capable  of  being  resolved,  or  of 
differentiating,  more  or  less  rapidly,  into  an  areolar 
tissue  and  plastides  of  the  kind  above  mentioned.  I 

1  In  what  precise  way  this  is  produced  we  have  still  no  certain 
knowledge.  I  feel  convinced  that  it  is  no  mere  'exudation'  from  the 
blood-vessels ;  neither  is  it  produced  by  an  abundant  proliferation  and 
over-growth  of  the  superficial  tissue  elements.  It  is  at  first  quite  struc- 
tureless, and,  judging  from  the  changes  which  it  subsequently  undergoes, 
it  seems  to  be  formless  living  matter. 


232  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

will  not  speak  more  in  detail  on  this  subject  now, 
as  the  particulars  would  be  somewhat  too  technical. 
Such  a  mode  of  origin  of  new  organic  units  is  closely 
allied  to  the  process  which  gives  birth  to  the  zoospores 
of  certain  Fungi  and  Algae,  or  to  the  reproductive 
gemmules  of  Protomyxa.  In  each  case  there  exists,  at 
first,  formless  living  matter :  only  the  independent  units 
into  which  it  afterwards  divides  remain  to  form  a 
coherent  tissue  in  the  one  case,  whilst  they  separate 
and  form  independent  reproductive  units  in  the  other 
instances  mentioned. 

A  careful  consideration  of  all  the  facts  adduced  in 
the  present  chapter  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that 
Living  Units,  whether  reproductive  or  not,  may  ori- 
ginate by  one  or  other  of  five  principal  methods  within 
the  bodies  of  pre-existing  organisms : — 

1.  In  a  not-living  organizable  fluid  we  have  good 

reason  to  suppose  that  a  living  unit  may  ori- 
ginate ;  and  this  being  so  we  should  have  in 
such  case  a  veritable  instance  of  the  passage 
of  the  not-living  into  the  living.  Life  would 
here  begin  de  novo  owing  to  the  occurrence  of 
certain  new  molecular  combinations.  To  this 
process  we  propose  to  apply  the  name  Arche- 
biosis  l. 

2.  Where  living  particles  or  portions  of  living  matter 

exist  in  a  fluid  or  semi-fluid  medium  some  of 

1  From  apx?i,  '  beginning/  and  fitoca,  '  to  live.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  233 

these  may  aggregate,  as  a  result  of  which  after 
certain  mysterious  changes,  or  more  or  less 
directly,  there  may  originate  a  new-formed  ele- 
ment, reproductive  or  other.  As  instances  of 
this  process — for  which  we  propose  the  name 
Biocrasis 1 — we  may  cite  the  mode  of  formation 
of  ova  in  Nematolds  and  in  many  other  animals, 
of  the  spore  in  Vauckerla^  and  of  the  so-called 
cgonidial  cell'  in  Nitella. 

3.  New  units  may  arise,  without  obvious  differentia- 
tion of  pre-existing  living  matter,  by  the  well- 
known  processes  of  fssion  or  gemmation.  Or 
again,  new  units  may  arise  owing  to  actually 
existing  living  matter  undergoing  a  process  of 
differentiation,  followed  by  a  simultaneous  divi- 
sion into  few  or  many  separate  living  things — 
by  a  method,  in  fact,  such  as  we  see  occurring  in 
the  reproduction  of  Protomyxa  or  Acklya*.  All 
such  modes  of  formation  of  living  units  we  pro- 
pose to  comprise  under  the  term  Biodiseresis 3. 

1  From  0ios,  '  life,'  and  tepdffis,  *  fusion.'     We  are  at  present  speaking 
only  of  the  origin  of  independent  units  in  pre-existing  organisms ;  and 
therefore  we  only  incidentally  call  attention  to  the  most  typical  instance 
of  this  process,  viz.  the  fusion  of  two  originally  distinct  Amoeba  into 
a  single  individual. 

2  In   the  process   of  organization   of  pericardial   lymph,   otherwise 
similar,  the  new-formed  units  do  not  separate  from  one  another,  and 
are  therefore  somewhat  less  independent.     The  mode  of  origin  of  the 
reproductive  units  inAcblya  and  Protomyxa  leads  us  on  almost  insensibly 
to  the  process  of  Biocanosis — the  products  of  the  molecular  re  arrange- 
ment are  here  multiple  instead  of  single. 

3  From  jStos,  '  life,'  and  oiaipeffis,  '  division.' 


234  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

4.  Living  matter  being  already  in  existence,  it  may 

after  a  time  undergo  a  thorough  molecular  re- 
arrangement whereby  it  acquires  fresh  powers 
and  an  increased  vitality,  fitting  it  for  inde- 
pendent existence.  By  this  process — for  which 
we  propose  the  name  Biocsenosis  l — the  spore  is 
produced  in  (Edogonmm  and  other  algae,  and 
also,  after  'conjugation,'  in  Palmogl<ea  and  the 
Zygnemeacete  2. 

5.  Lastly,  in  the   midst  of  already  existing  living 

matter  (in  the  form  of  cell  or  plastide)  there 
may  arise  a  new  centre  of  growth  and  life,  which 
may  subsequently  lead  an  independent  existence. 
Such  is  the  mode  of  origin  of  the  embryo  in  all 
Phanerogamia,  of  the  majority  of  spermatozoa, 
and  possibly  of  the  ova  in  Birds  and  Mammals  j 
also  of  nuclei  in  many  plastides,  which  may 
outlive  the  latter  and  subsequently  lead  an  inde- 
pendent existence.  These  processes  we  propose 
to  include  under  the  name  Bioparadosis3. 


1  From  jStos, '  life/  and  Kaivuats,  '  renewal.' 

2  These  are  some  of  the  phenomena  spoken  of  by  Alexander  Braun 
under  the  name  'Rejuvenescence'  (Verjiingung). 

3  From  /3/os,  '  life,'  and  irapdScaats,  '  transmission.'     The  phrase  '  free 
cell  formation,'  as  used  by  older  writers,  includes  these  endogenous 
processes,  and   also   that  which  we   designate  Arcbebiosis.     There   is, 
moreover,  a  certain  resemblance  between  Arcbebiosis  and  Bioparadosis. 
In  the  one  case  a  centre   of  Life  is  initiated  in   the  midst  of  mere 
organizable   matter,  whilst  in  the  other   it  is  initiated  in  an   equally 
mysterious  way  in  the  midst  of  already  existing  living  matter.     The 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  235 

Thus  we  have  in  all,  five  principal  processes  or  modes 
of  origin  of  living  units,  which  in  each  case  may  or  may 
not,  by  virtue  of  subsequent  developmental  processes, 
assume  the  e  cell '  form : — 

Life-origination Archeblosls. 

Life-fusion Biocrasis. 

Life-division Biodi  crests. 

Life-renewal  Biocxnosts. 

Life-transmission Bioparadosis. 

Although,  however,  we  have  arrived  at  a  very  strong 
presumption  that  specks  of  living  protoplasm  are 
evolved  de  novo  in  certain  fluids  within  the  body,  it 
will  doubtless  at  first  be  said  by  many  that  such  an 
occurrence  affords  no  instance  of  a  passage  of  the 
not-living  into  the  living,  because  the  phenomenon 
takes  place  in  a  fluid  which  is  already  endowed  with 
Life.  Let  us  not  deceive  ourselves,  however,  by  any 
inconclusive  assumption.  The  organic  fluids  pertain- 
ing to  higher  animals  and  plants  can  be  said  to 
live  only  because  they  constitute  parts  of  living  organ- 
isms. But  is  this  enough?  The  several  fluids  have 
each  peculiarities  of  their  own,  and  are  certainly 
very  different  from  one  another  in  their  degree  of 
elaboration.  Thus,  when  dead  organic  matter  in  the 
shape  of  food  is  introduced  into  the  stomach  of  an 

mode  of  origin  of  the  zoospores  of  Conferva  area,  and  of  the  re- 
productive units  of  certain  Amoebae,  as  described  by  Nicolet,  may 
perhaps  be  regarded  as  instances  of  Bioparadosis  with  multiple  products 
instead  of  with  the  origination  of  a  single  reproductive  unit. 


236  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

animal,  it  is  first  converted  into  chyme ;  then,  having 
been  absorbed  from  the  intestinal  canal  and  submitted 
to  the  action  of  certain  parts  of  the  lymphatic  system, 
it  is  converted  into  fully  elaborated  chyle,  which  is 
afterwards  poured  into  the  proper  vascular  system. 
Now  when,  during  this  process,  does  the  solution  of 
dead  organic  matter  assume  the  qualities  of  Life  ?  when, 
or  at  what  stage,  does  it  become  a  living  fluid  ?  is  it, 
in  fact,  ever  anything  else  (even  in  its  most  elaborated 
condition  of  blood-plasma)  than  a  mere  organizable 
solution  of  organic  compounds,  capable  of  acting  as 
pabulum  for  already  existing  living  matter,  and  of 
permitting  the  de  novo  origination  of  new  centres  of 
growth  and  Life?  Certain  it  is  that  at  some  stage 
the  passage  from  the  not-living  to  the  living  must 
be  effected;  and  the  process  is  probably  not  more 
abrupt  than  that  reverse  process  by  which  living  matter 
again  reverts  to  not-living  materials,  such  as  are  cast  off 
in  various  excreted  fluids.  Starting  with  dead  organic 
and  inorganic  matter,  imbibed  as  food,  we  pass,  in  all 
living  animals  and  plants,  through  fluids  of  various  de- 
grees of  elaboration,  till  we  find  these  food  ingredients 
becoming  converted  into  actual  Living  Matter.  The 
animal  or  plant  is  nourished,  and  grows  by  the  occurrence 
of  such  a  process.  We  contend,  however,  that  the  fluids 
concerned  cannot  be  said  to  live.  The  property,  or 
aggregate  of  properties,  designated  by  the  word  c  Life ' 
does  not  pertain  to  the  fluids  themselves,  though  their 
constitution  is  such  as  to  favour,  under  the  influence 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  237 

of  certain  conditions,  new  modes  of  collocation  amongst 
the  molecules  of  the  matter  in  solution,  whereby  the 
transition  may  take  place  from  the  not-living  to  the 
living.  When  these  molecules  aggregate  so  as  to  form 
the  smallest  conceivable  specks  of  protoplasm,  then 
does  nascent  or  potential  pass  into  actual  Life.  But, 
it  may  well  be  asked,  must  not  the  process  be  essentially 
similar,  whether  we  have  to  do  with  the  phenomena 
of  growth  or  the  phenomena  of  evolution  ?  In  each  act 
of  growth  not-living  matter  must  be  converted  into  matter 
which  lives ,•  just  as  we  now  suppose  such  a  process 
to  occur  when  the  minutest  specks  of  living  matter 
arise  in  homogeneous  organizable  fluids.  We  are  as 
powerless  to  explain  the  one  process,  of  which  no  one 
doubts  the  reality,  as  we  are  the  other,  which — in  part, 
because  it  is  less  familiar — so  many  seem  to  think 
an  impossible  one.  That  living  matter  is  capable  of 
growing  and  increasing  in  bulk  is  an  obvious  and 
undeniable  fact.  Physiologists  and  others  can,  how- 
ever, if  they  choose,  doubt  the  reality  of  the  occur- 
rence of  that  to  which  we  have  been  alluding,  since 
Arckehiosis^  far  from  being  obvious,  is  even  extremely 
difficult  to  establish  with  certainty.  And  accordingly, 
whilst  many  physiologists  readily  grant  that  during  the 
growth  of  organisms  the  not-living  does  continually 
pass  into  the  living  under  the  influence  of  physi- 
cal forces  alone1,  they,  influenced  by  old  theoretical 

1  It  cannot  of  course  be  expected  that  those  physiologists  who  still 
believe  in  the  existence  of  a  special  'vital  principle'  should  so  easily 


238  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

considerations  which  they  are  unable  thoroughly  to  cast 
aside,  cannot  bring  themselves  to  believe — think  it,  in 
fact,  a  stupendous  step  to  have  to  imagine — that  the 
same  matter  and  the  same  forces,  should  be  able  of  them- 
selves to  collocate  into  independent  centres  of  growth. 
Whilst  teaching,  as  they  implicitly  or  explicitly  do,  that 
the  growth  of  organisms  is  a  process  akin  to  crystal- 
lization (a  process  which  has  to  do  only  with  ordinary 
matter  of  a  certain  kind  acted  upon  by  ordinary  forces) 
they  nevertheless  persist  in  believing  that — whilst 
the  crystal  can  and  does  originate  de  no<vo  by  virtue 
of  the  action  of  those  molecular  affinities  which  are 
potential  in  its  growth — the  organism  is  quite  unable 
similarly  to  originate  by  the  play  of  those  very  same 
affinities  which  are  afterwards  alone  admitted  to  be 
necessary  for  its  increase.  Whilst  the  first  particle  of 
a  crystal  owes  its  origin  to  the  same  causes  as  those 
which  subsequently  determine  its  growth,  the  first  par- 
ticle of  a  living  organism,  though  also  substantially 
similar  to  those  which  are  subsequently  formed,  is 
arbitrarily  assumed  to  be  incapable  of  arising  under  the 
influence  of  the  causes  which  are  believed  to  determine 
their  existence.  This  assumption  is  obviously  opposed 
to  what  we  might  expect  a  priori.  The  real  point  of 
view,  therefore,  for  the  emancipated  scientific  enquirer 
of  the  present  day,  in  looking  into  the  evidence 

become  converts  to  a  doctrine  of  evolution  by  which  the  not-living  is, 
through  a  series  of  successive  changes,  supposed  to  be  converted  into 
the  living. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  239 

bearing  upon  this  subject,  is  rather  to  see  whether 
it  tends  to  countenance  an  assumption  so  contradic- 
tory to  the  present  teachings  of  biological  science,  or 
whether  it  is  now  altogether  and  more  strongly  in 
favour  of  the  doctrine  of  Evolution. 


PART  II. 


ARCHEBIOSIS. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

MEANINGS    ATTACHED    TO    TERM    'SPONTANEOUS    GENERATION.' 

The  term  should  be  discarded — being  bad  and  insufficient.  Includes 
two  fundamentally  different  sets  of  phenomena.  Influence  of 
general  views  concerning  '  Life.'  Opinions  of  Burdach.  Meanings 
of  terms  Homogenia  and  Heterogenia.  Burdach,  Buffon,  Needham, 
Pouchet,  and  others,  never  believed  in  Arcbebiosis.  This,  antago- 
nistic to  their  general  views  concerning  Life.  Previous  use  of  term 
Heterogenesis  therefore  correct  and  may  be  retained.  May  occur 
during  Life  of  Organism  as  a  whole,  or  after  its  death.  Modes  of 
origin  of  living  things. 

Views  of  earlier  writers  concerning  'Spontaneous  Generation.'  Aristotle, 
Ovid,  and  others.  Continuance  of  these  views  till  time  of  Harvey. 
Doubt  as  to  his  exact  doctrine.  Experiments  and  opinions  of  Redi, 
Needham,  Buffon,  Spallanzani,  and  Bonnet.  Views  of  other  writers 
at  close  of  last  and  early  part  of  present  century.  Contrast  between 
doctrines  of  Lamarck  and  Burdach.  Observations  of  Pineau. 
Views  of  Ehrenberg.  Experiments  of  Schwann  and  Schultze. 
Writings  of  M.  Pouchet.  Vigorous  discussion  excited  thereby. 
Labours  of  M.  Pasteur.  Modern  aspects  of  discussion  to  be 
more  fully  explained  hereafter. 

AS  human  knowledge  increases  concerning  any 
department  of  science  it  almost  always  becomes 
necessary  to  give  up  some  terms  or  modes  of  ex- 
pressions long  in  use,  and  which  may  not  have  seemed 
faulty  whilst  the  science  was  in  its  infancy.  Certain 
of  them,  however,  may  gradually  become  less  and  less 

R  2 


244  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

suitable,  because  they  convey  notions  absolutely  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  later  development  of  knowledge  on 
the  subject,  or  because  they  are  too  vague  and  general. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  phrase  c spontaneous  generation' 
should  be  rejected  in  the  present  day.  The  phenomena 
hitherto  referred  to  under  this  name  are  no  more 
c  spontaneous '  than  are  any  others  which  take  place 
in  accordance  with  natural  laws.  The  phrase  is,  more- 
over, utterly  inadequate,  since  under  it,  if  retained, 
we  should  have  to  include  two  sets  of  phenomena  at 
least,  which,  in  the  present  day,  ought  to  be  carefully 
discriminated  from  one  another. 

This  discrimination  has,  however,  been  attempted 
only  by  a  few  writers.  Many  who  have  written  on 
the  subject  of  c  spontaneous  generation '  have  failed  to 
appreciate  the  full  extent  of  the  difference  which  exists 
between  the  origin  of  living  things  from  not-living 
materials  (Archebiosis),  and  their  origin  in  whatever 
fashion — whether  by  modes  which  are  familiar,  or  by 
others  which  are  unfamiliar — from  the  substance  of  a 
pre-existing  living  thing.  This  difference,  which  is  so 
little  dwelt  upon  by  some,  assumes  in  the  minds  of 
others  an  overwhelming  importance — they  might  be 
open  to  conviction  as  to  the  possibility  of  living  things 
arising  by  previously  unknown  methods  from  the  matter 
of  pre-existing  living  things,  whilst  they  would  regard 
the  origin  of  living  things  from  not-living  materials  to 
be  altogether  impossible.  In  the  first  set  of  cases,  how- 
ever bizarre  the  mode  of  generation  might  be,  there 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  245 

would  at  least  be  a  continuity  of  Life — the  peculiar 
powers  of  living  matter  would  be  directly  communi- 
cated or  transmitted,  although  such  living  matter  might 
take  on  new  modes  of  growth  and  development ;  but  in 
the  occurrence  of  Archebiosis  they  would  have  to 
imagine  the  actual  new  creation  of  the  special  and 
peculiar  c something-'  which  they  mentally  associate 
with  the  word  c  Life.' 

The  general  views  entertained  concerning  Life — its 
nature,  or  the  meaning  to  be  attached  to  it  as  a  term — 
exercise  no  small  influence  in  producing  a  variation  in 
the  point  of  view  of  different  writers  as  to  the  nature  of 
certain  phenomena.  Thus,  statements  which  appear  to 
many  to  be  consistent  only  with  a  belief  in  Archebiosis., 
are,  when  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  general  views 
of  the  writers,  often  found  not  to  warrant  such  a  con- 
clusion. This  may  be  best  explained  by  a  reference  to 
the  opinions  of  two  or  three  well-known  writers  on 
the  subject. 

In  the  first  volume  of  his  c  Physiologic,'  published  in 
1826,  Burdach  introduced  the  words  Homogenia  and 
Heterogenia,  as  names  for  the  two  principal  class 
distinctions  in  the  mode  of  origin  of  living  things. 
Homogenia  was  the  class-name  applied  to  the  processes 
by  which  an  individual  results  from  a  pre-existing 
living  thing,  similar  to  itself  in  organization;  whilst 
Heterogenia  was  the  class-name  for  processes  by  which 
living  things  arise  from  the  matter  of  pre-existing 
organisms  belonging  to  a  totally  different  species. 


^246  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Concerning  these  latter  processes  Burdach  said1: — 
c  On  appelle  Heterogenie  (generatto  heterogenea,  primiti'va.) 
primigena^  ortginarta^  spontanea)  toute  production  d'etre 
vivant  qui,  ne  se  rattachant,  ni  pour  la  substance  ni  pour 
1'occasion,  a  des  individus  de  la  meme  espece,  a  pour 
point  de  depart  des  corps  d'un  autre  espece,  et  depend 
d'un  concours  d'autres  circonstances.  C'est  la  mani- 
festation d'un  etre  nouveau  et  denue  de  parens,  par 
consequent  une  generation  primordiale,  ou  un  creation/ 
So  far,  this  would  seem  to  intimate  the  possibility  of 
the  formation  (by  Heterogeny)  of  living  things  only 
from  the  matter  of  pre-existing  organisms,  but  Burdach 
did  not  really  confine  himself  to  this  doctrine,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  quotation  taken  from  the 
next  page.  He  says : — c  Nul  doute  que  notre  planete 
ne  soit  arrivee  par  degres  a  son  etat  actuel,  qu'a  une 
epoque  tres  reculee  elle  n'ait  ete  inhabitable  pour  les 
£tres  organises,  et  que  tous  ces  etres  ne  soient  formes 
peu  a  peu  sans  parens,  consequemment  par  la  voie  de 
1'heterogenie.  Si  Ton  juge  d'apres  ce  fait  et  autres 
semblable,  la  terre  a  posse'de  jadis  un  exuberance  de 
force  plastltjue  ,•  cette  force  ne  peut  point  avoir  e'te 
transitoire  et  accidentelle ;  elle  ne  peut  avoir  ete 
qu'essentielle  et  inseparable  de  la  nature,  elle  ne  sau- 
rait  done  etre  eteinte  actuellement.  Limitee  quant  a 
Tetendue  de  ses  manifestations,  elle  continue  toujours 
d'agir  pour  la  conservation  de  ce  qui  a  e'te  cree,  et, 

1  In  the  second  edition  of  his  work,  as  translated  by  Jourdan — 'Traite 
de  Physiologic,*  1837,  t.  i.  p.  8. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE,  247 

quoiqu'elle  ne  maintienne  les  formes  organiques  supe- 
rieures  que  par  la  seule  propagation,  il  ne  repugne  point 
au  bon  sens  de  penser  qu'aujourd'hui  encore  elle  a  la 
puissance  de  produire  les  formes  inferieures  avec  des 
elements  heterogenes,  comme  elle  a  cree  originaire- 
ment  tout  ce  qui  possede  Forganisation.'  But,  although 
this  passage  shows  that  Burdach  believed  in  the 
possibility  of  the  origin  of  living  things  from  what 
are  called  not-living  materials,  nevertheless  he  did 
not  believe  that  in  such  a  case  there  would  be  a 
creation  of  a  something  altogether  new,  which  we  term 
c  Life.'  This  divergence  arises  from  the  nature  of  his 
theoretical  views.  The  whole  universe  is  to  him  the 
organism  of  organisms,  and  endowed  with  Life.  Else- 
where l  he  says :  — c  Mais  si  Tunivers  est  1'organisme 
absolu,  chacune  de  ses  parties  doit  etre  un  tout  or- 

ganique     II   y  a  plus   encore :    la    force    du 

tout  doit  etre  inherente  &  chaque  chose  particuliere, 
et  effectivement  nous  rencontrons  des  traces  de  vie  dans 
toute  existence  yuelconque  V  Similar  considerations  have 
to  be  taken  into  account  before  we  can  thoroughly 
comprehend  the  doctrines  of  Pouchet,  and  those  of 
BufTbn,  Needham,  and  others  who  are  professed 

1  '  Trait6  de  Physiol.'  t.  iv.  p.  149. 

2  The  relation  of  Force  to  Life  seems  to  have  been  clearly  seen  by 
Burdach,  whose  doctrine  approximates  to  that  of  Schelling.     We  differ 
only  in  restricting  the  attribute  '  living  '  to  its  conventional  use ;  though 
we   fully  recognize  that  all  things — whether  living  or  not-living— are 
fundamentally  related  from  the   point   of  view  of  the  origin  of  their 
'  properties,'  or  '  qualities.' 


248  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

c  vitalists.'  They  all  agree  that  pre-existing  c  vital 
force  '  of  some  kind — pre-existing  Life,  therefore — 
is  necessary,  and  that  without  the  agency  of  this  no 
living  thing  can  come  into  being.  M.  Pouchet  did 
not  believe  in  what  we  term  c  Archebiosis,5  and  he 
quite  legitimately  called  himself  a  heterogenist  j  be- 
cause the  molecules  of  the  infused  animal  or  vegetable 
substances  (with  which  alone  he  experimented)  were 
supposed  by  him  to  be  possessed  by  some  special  c  vital 
force,'  or  c  force  plastique,"*  under  whose  directive  agency 
the  new  collocations  arose1.  He  says2: — CI  have  always 
thought  that  organized  beings  were  animated  by  forces 
which  are  in  no  way  reducible  to  physical  and  chemical 
forces.'  And  accordingly  M.  Pouchet  has  never  at- 
tempted to  show  that  living  things  might  come  into 

1  In  this  point  of  view  he  is  indeed  supported  by  the  doctrines  announced 
quite  recently  by  a  celebrated  French  chemist,  concerning  'corps  hemi- 
organises.'   M.  Fremy  says  ('  Compt.  Rend.'  t.  Ixvii.  p.  1 165) : — '  Ces  corps 
sont  les  albumines,  la  fibrine,  la  cas&ne,  les  substances  vit^llines,  &c.    La 
synthese  chimique  ne  les  reproduit  pas.    II  est  impossible  selon  moi  de  les 
considdrer  comme  des  principes  imme'diats  definis  :  je  les  designe,  sous  le 
nom  g£n£ral  de  corps  bdmiorganises,  parce  qu'ils  tiennent  le  milieu  entre 

le  principe  imme'diat  et  le  tissu  organist Us  ne  sont  pas  encore 

organist  mais  cependant  ils  sont  dou^s  d'une  veritable  force  vitale,  car 
sous  1'influence  de  1'air  humide  ils  entrent  en  decomposition  comme  des 
corps  vivants  et  re'ellement  organises.'     He  says  also : — '  en  raison  de 
la  force  vitale  qu'ils  possedent,  ils   eprouvent  alors   des  decompositions 
successives,  donnent  naissance  a  des  derives  nouveaux,  et  engendrent  des 
ferments  dont  la  production  n'est  pas  due  a  une  generation  spontanee, 
mais  a  une  force  vital  preexistante  dans  les  corps  h£miorganis6s  et  qui 
s'est  simplement  continuee  en  se  manifestant  par  les  transformations 
organiques  les  plus  varides.' 

2  '  Hdtdrogenie,'  1859,  p.  428. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  249 

being  in  solutions  which  had  previously  contained 
merely  mineral  ingredients.  This  was  only  possible, 
he  thought,  in  organic  solutions,  the  matter  of  which 
had  been  previously  formed  under  the  influence  of  Life, 
and  whose  properties  it  still  retained1.  The  postulation 
by  Needham  of  a  special  c  force  vegetative/  and  by 
Buffon  of  the  invariable  agency  of  vital,  though  imma- 
terial, c  molecules  organiques,'  suffice  to  place  them  in 
this  same  category:  they  are  all  persons  whos?  theo- 
retical views  have  been  framed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
exclude  the  possibility  of  their  belief  in  the  origin  of 
the  living  from  the  'not-living.  The  possibility  of 
Archebiosis  not  being  one  of  the  elements  of  their 
philosophical  creed,  they  would  give  a  different  inter- 
pretation to  certain  facts  which,  in  the  minds  of  others, 
might  seem  to  testify  to  the  occurrence  of  such  a  process. 
Seeing  that  the  notion  represented  by  the  word 
c  Archebiosis'  is  one  which — on  account  of  these  theo- 
retical views — does  not  very  often  occur  in  previous 
writings  upon  c  spontaneous  generation,'  and  seeing 
how  desirable  it  is  to  separate  this  idea  from  that 

1  Many  will,  however,  rather  agree  with  us  in  thinking  that  a  mere 
solution  made  by  infusing  animal  or  vegetable  tissues,  has— apart  from 
germs  of  living  things  which  it  may  contain — no  more  title  to  the 
epithet  '  living,'  than  has  any  solution  of  mineral  substances  a  right  to 
such  an  appellation.  For  those  who  hold  such  opinions,  therefore,  the 
appearance  of  living  things  in  organic  solutions  (after  all  pre-existing 
germs  had  been  destroyed),  should  it  occur,  would  be  as  much  a  case  of 
the  origin  of  the  living  from  the  not-living,  as  if  the  new  forms  of  life 
had  appeared,  in  spite  of  similar  precautions,  in  solutions  containing 
mere  mineral  or  saline  constituents. 


250  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

primarily  indicated  by  Heterogema,  it  seems  to  us  that 
all  the  necessities  of  the  case  will  be  met  by  the 
introduction  of  the  one  new  term  c  Archebiosis.'  This 
will  permit  the  limitation  of  the  word  c  Heterogenia*  (or 
c  Heterogenesis '),  to  the  sense  originally  given  to  it  in 
Burdach's  definition,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the  sense 
in  which  it  has  almost  invariably  been  employed l. 

It  is  a  matter  of  altogether  secondary  importance 
whether  the  individualisation  of  the  portion  of  the 
matter  of  an  organism  (with  power  of  independent 
development)  takes  place  during  the  life  of  the  organ- 
ism or  after  its  death.  As  we  have  already  seen,  an 
organism  is  an  organic  whole  made  up  of  a  number  of 
partially  independent  living  units.  The  death  of  the 
organism  we  have  compared  to  the  arrest  of  motion  in  a 
complex  machine  •  it  does  not  at  once  entail  the  death 
of  the  matter  entering  into  its  composition.  There  is  a 

1  The  word  '  Heterogenkse'  was  first  used  by  Breschet  in  the  article 
'Deviation  Organique,'  in  the  first  edition  of  the  '  Dictionnaire  de  Medecine' 
(t.  vi.  1823).  He  divided  monstrosities  into  four  classes  :  (i)  Ag^nfeses, 
(2)  Hyperg^nkses,  (3)  Diplogdneses,  and  (4)  Het^rogenkses ;  and  these 
he  proposed  to  describe  in  detail  in  the  article  '  Monstruosite'  This, 
however,  was  never  done ;  the  latter  article  being  written  instead  by 
Andral,  without  reference  to  Breschet's  classification,  which  was  never 
accepted.  In  the  second  edition  of  the  '  Dictionnaire  de  Mddecine,'  the 
article  '  Monstruosite'  was  written  by  Ollivier,  who,  in  an  unfavourable 
criticism  of  Breschet's  system,  called  special  attention  to  the  unsatis- 
factory nature  of  the  division  Heterogenkses,  under  which  were  included 
conditions  which  had  no  sort  of  relationship  to  one  another,  such  as 
albinism,  extra-uterine  fetation,  displacement  of  viscera,  &c.  No  objec- 
tion, therefore,  can  be  made,  on  the  score  of  previous  appropriation, 
to  the  transition  from  '  Heterogenia '  to  '  Heterogenesis,'  which  has 
gradually  been  brought  about. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  251 

cessation  only  of  the  combined  action  which  constitutes 
the  life  of  the  entire  organism,  though  its  constituent 
parts  continue  to  live  for  a  time,  and  gradually,  at 
different  intervals,  lapse  into  the  condition  of  mere 
dead  matter.  It  is  unimportant,  therefore,  in  order  that 
heterogeny  may  occur,  whether  a  certain  portion  of 
the  matter  of  an  organism  becomes  individualised  into 
a  distinct  and  independent  living  thing  during  the 
life  of  such  organism,  or  after  its  death,  so  long  as  its 
individual  parts  continue  to  live 1.  When  death  has 
once  fallen  upon  these — when  they  have  lapsed  into  the 
condition  of  mere  not-living  organic  matter — no  further 
organizing  changes  are,  for  a  time,  possible.  The  matter 
must  undergo  solution,  and  must  give  up  its  solid  form ; 

1  M.  Milne-Edwards,  in  his  '  Le9ons  de  la  Physiologic  et  de  1'Anatomie 
Comparde'  (1868,  t.  8ne.  p.  251),  thinks  this  difference  one  of  more 
importance,  apparently ;  for,  though  he  does  not  believe  in  the  occur- 
rence of  either,  he  proposes  that  the  first  process  should  be  spoken  of  as 
necrogenie,  and  the  second  as  zenogenie.  What  we  term  Arcbebiosis, 
he  spoke  of  as  '  agenetique  mode  d'origine '  of  organisms.  We  have 
endeavoured  to  show  that  this  process  has  only  very  rarely  been 
included  under  the  word  '  H^terogenie ' — which  has  almost  invariably 
been  used  to  signify  what  M.  Milne-Edwards  needlessly  includes  under 
the  two  words  zenogenie  and  necrogenie.  His  statement,  therefore,  that 
in  place  of  the  word  zenogenie,  he  should  have  preferred  '  le  nom 
d'beterogenie  si  ce  nom  n'avait  deja  recu  une  acceptation  differente  et 
beaucoup  plus  etendue,'  refers  only  to  its  having  been  used,  as  he 
supposes,  as  an  equivalent  to  all  the  processes  which  have  been  spoken 
of  under  the  head  of  '  spontaneous  generation.'  This,  however,  is  an 
erroneous  supposition.  The  surrender  of  the  word  '  H£terog£nie '  is, 
therefore,  no  more  necessary  than  desirable ;  and  it  is  fortunate  that 
this  is  the  case,  because  the  word  is  already  so  deeply  stamped  into  the 
literature  of  this  and  other  countries  that  any  change  would  cause  much 
confusion. 


252 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


and  then,  if  new  living  things  appear,  we  have  no  longer 
to  do  with  Heterogeny,  but  rather  with  Archebiosis. 

As  to  the  various  modes  in  which  Heterogeny  may 
occur,  we  will  say  nothing  more  at  present  than  may  be 
found  in  the  following  table.  Numerous  variations 
will  be  subsequently  described. 

Archebiosis 


ORIGIN 

OF 

LIVING 
THINGS. 


(primordial    ori- 
gination). 


From  not-living  ma- 
terials. 


Heterogenetic. 


f  I .  From  a  portion  of 
the  living  matter  of 
a  pre-existing  or- 
ganism, (a)  After  its 
death,  (b)  Before  its 
death. 

2.  By  a  molecular  me- 
tamorphosis of  the 
matter  of  an  entire 

Reproduction  organism, 

(from    pre-exist-  •<  3.  By    the    metamor- 

ingliving  things).  phosis  and  fusion  of 

many    minute     or- 
ganisms. 

[.Indirect.  Cases  of 
'  alternate'  or  cycli- 
cal generation l. 

Homogenetic.  «|  2.  Direct.  Continuous 
development  into 
the  likeness  of  its 
parent. 

Having  briefly  indicated  the  nature  of  the  problems 
which  require  to  be  carefully  discriminated  from  one 
another,  we  will  now,  before  enquiring  into  the  possi- 
bility of  Archebiosis  taking  place  in  the  present  phase 
of  the  earth's  history,  briefly  enumerate  some  of  the 
different  opinions  which  have  been  expressed  by  earlier 
writers  on  the  subject  of c  spontaneous  generation.' 

1  These  are  the  cases  for  which  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  has  appropriated 
the  term  '  Heterogenesis '  (see  'Principles  of  Biology/ vol.  i.  p.  210).  The 
above  arrangement  would,  we  think,  meet  his  requirements. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  253 

Aristotle  believed  in  the  c  spontaneous '  origination 
of  eels  and  other  fish  out  of  the  slimy  mud  of  rivers 
and  marshes;  also  that  certain  insects  took  origin 
from  the  vernal  dew  on  plants;  and  that  lice  were 
spontaneously  engendered  in  the  flesh  of  animals. 
He  believed  also  that  animals  might  proceed  from 
vegetables — that  the  caterpillars  of  certain  butterflies, 
for  instance,  were  actually  the  products  of  the  plants 
upon  which  they  feed.  Some  of  these  beliefs  were 
echoed  by  Lucretius l  and  Ovid  more  than  two  hundred 
years  later.  When  the  latter  of  these  poets  had  de- 
scribed the  means  adopted  by  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha 
for  repeopling  the  world  after  the  deluge — how  the 
backwardly-thrown  stones,  the  bones  of  mother  earth, 
grew  into  human  beings — he  thus  accounts  for  the 
origin  of  all  the  lower  living  things : — 

'  Csetera  diversis  tellus  animalia  formis 
Sponte  sua  peperit,  postquam  vetus  humor  ab  igne 
Percaluit  Soils,  coenumque  udseque  paludes 
Intumuere  sestu :  fecundaque  semina  rerum 
Vivaci  nutrita  solo,  ceu  matris  in  alvo, 
Creverunt,  faciemque  aliquam  cepere  morando. 
Sic,  ubi  deseruit  madidos  septemfluus  agros 
Nilus,  et  antique  sua  flumina  reddidit  alveo, 
.ffithereoque  recens  exarsit  sidere  limus ; 
Plurima  cultores  versis  animalia  glebis 
Inveniunt,  et  in  his  qusedam  modo  coepta  per  ipsum 
Nascendi  spatium,  quaedam  imperfecta,  suisque 
Trunca  vident  numeris :   et  eodem  corpore  ssepe 
Altera  pars  vivit,  rudis  est  pars  altera  tellus2.' 

1  •  De  Rerum  Natura,'  lib.  v.  793. 

8  This  passage  (Metamorph.  bk.  i.  416-429)  has  been  thus  translated 
by  Dryden : — 


254  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Such  an  origin  for  various  kinds  of  animals  was  also 
referred  to  by  Diodorus  Siculus  and  by  Plutarch — the 
soil  of  Egypt,  and  the  bed  of  the  Nile  in  particular, 
being  more  especially  alluded  to  as  the  seat  where  such 
marvels  had  been  observed.  Ovid,  moreover,  speaks  of 
bees  originating  in  the  putrefying  flesh  of  a  bull. 

These  old  and  crude  notions  as  to  the  possibility  of 
the  new  evolution  of  complex  and  highly  organized 
animals  out  of  decaying  organic,  and  even  out  of  in- 
organic materials,  survived  till  far  on  into  the  middle 
ages.  The  influence  of  the  teachings  of  Aristotle  was 
still  all-powerful  in  such  subjects.  What  he  had 
affirmed,  multitudes  implicitly  believed  for  many 
centuries. 

The  transition  from  the  ancient  to  the  modern 
popular  view,  was  initiated  by  that  illustrious  phy- 


'  The  rest  of  animals  from  teeming  earth 
Produc'd,  in  various  forms  receiv'd  their  birth. 
The  native  moisture,  in  its  close  retreat 
Digested  by  the  sun's  zetherial  heat 
As  in  a  kindly  womb,  began  to  breed, 
Then  swell'd  and  quicken'd  by  the  vital  seed. 
And  some  in  less,  and  some  in  longer  space, 
Were  ripen'd  into  form  and  took  a  several  face. 
Thus  when  the  Nile  from  Pharian  fields,  is  fled, 
And  seeks,  with  ebbing  tides,  his  ancient  bed, 
The  fat  manure  with  heav'nly  fire  is  warm'd: 
And  crusted  creatures,  as  in  wombs,  are  formed; 
These,  when  they  turn  the  glebe,  the  peasants  find. 
Some  rude,  and  yet  unfinished  in  their  kind. 
Short  of  their  limbs,  a  lame  imperfect  birth; 
One  half  alive,  and  one  of  lifeless  earth.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  255 

sician  and  biologist,  William  Harvey,  the  discoverer 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  modern  theory 
of  development  (Epigenesis)  dates  from  a  celebrated 
treatise  by  Harvey,  entitled  Exercitationes  de  Gene- 
ratlone  Animal'mm  ,•  and  he  also  is  commonly  believed 
to  have  taught  the  doctrine  of  the  continuity  of  Life 
on  our  globe,  as  opposed  to  views  concerning  its  de 
novo  origination.  But  although,  apparently,  a  dis- 
believer in  the  doctrine  that  living  things  could  take 
origin  from  not-living  materials  (Archebiosis),  Harvey 
was  a  firm  believer  in  Heterogenesis.  On  this  subject 
Burdach  said  1  :  —  c  The  rallying-cry  of  the  adversaries 
of  spontaneous  generation  is  the  following  sentence, 
resting  upon  classical  authority  :  omne  vivum  ex  wo. 
But  they  can  only  quote  this  sentence  in  support  of 
their  opinion  by  neglecting  the  spirit  and  fixing  merely 
upon  the  letter  of  what  was  said.  Valentin  has 
already  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  Harvey  him- 
self, far  from  wishing  to  deny  thereby  all  spontaneous 
generation,  used  the  word  ccegg"  as  a  general  term  to 
designate  a  substance  capable  of  germinating  —  that  is 
to  say,  for  every  kind  of  matter  which  develops  immedi- 
ately into  an  organised  body  —  and  that,  consequently, 
he  extended  this  denomination  even  to  the  substance 
called  cc  primordial  mucus  2."  3  It  seems  quite  certain, 
from  many  passages  in  Harvey's  writings,  that  he  was 


de  Physiologic,'  2nd  edition,  1837,  t.  i.  p.  10. 
2  This  is  the  name  given  by  Burdach  to  the  pellicle  which  forms  on 
organic  infusions. 


256  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

still  a  believer  in  Heterogenesis  \  though  it  is  some- 
what doubtful  whether  he  had  rejected  the  old  notions 
as  to  the  direct  origin  of  the  living  from  the  not-living. 
Although  grave  doubts  may  be  entertained,  therefore,  as 
to  the  propriety  of  expressing  Harvey's  doctrine  by  the 
phrase  omne  vivum  ex  o<vo^  it  is  not  even  altogether  free 
from  doubt  whether  the  modification  suggested  by 
M.  Milne  -  Edwards,  omne  <ut*vum  ex  vivo,  really  em- 
bodies the  notion  taught  by  Harvey.  In  illustration 
of  this  difficulty,  we  need  only  quote  the  following 
general  statement  made  by  Harvey  in  summing  up  his 
doctrines 2  : — c  His  autem  omnibus  (sc.  animalibus  et 
stirpibus)  .  .  »  .  sive  sponte,  sive  ex  aliis,  sive  in  aliis, 
vel  partibus,  vel  excrementis  eorum  putrescentibus, 

oriantur id  commune  est^  ut  ex  principio  v'wente 

gignantur,  adeo  ut  omnibus  viventibus  primordium  insit 

ex  quo  et  a  quo  proveniant Diversa  scilicet 

diversorum  viventium  primordia;  pro  quorum  vario 
discrimine  alii  atque  alii  sunt  generationis  animalium 
modi,  qui  tamen  omnes  in  hoc  uno  conveniunt,  quod 
a  primordio  vegitali,  tanquam  e  materia  efficienti 
virtute  dotata,  oriantur:  differunt  autem,  quod  prim- 
ordium hoc  vel  sponte  et  casu  erumpat,  vel  ab  alio 
praeexistente  tanquam  fructus  proveniant.'  Whilst 
every  living  thing,  therefore,  is  said  to  derive  its  im- 
mediate origin  from  a  c  living  principle,'  Harvey  also 

1  Attention  was  again  prominently  called  to  this  fact  in  1865,  by  M. 
Pouchet. 

2  Loc.  cit.  p.  270. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  257 

thought  that  this  cprimordium'  might  arise  csponte 
et  casu,'  so  that  he  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  been 
a  strict  believer  in  the  continuity  of  Life. 

The  first  adversary  who  seriously  attacked  the  old 
and  then  accepted  doctrines  was  Redi,  a  Florentine 
physician,  who,  in  1638,  announced  and  demonstrated 
before  one  of  the  learned  academies,  of  which  he  was 
a  member,  that  the  maggots  which  appear  in  putrefying 
flesh  are  deposited  by  flies,  and  are  not  engendered,  as 
had  been  generally1  supposed,  in  the  flesh  itself.  This 
demonstration  gave  rise  to  much  discussion  at  the  time, 
and  undoubtedly  shook  the  faith  of  many  in  the  truth 
of  the  old  doctrines.  But  even  Redi  himself,  it  ap- 
pears, rather  attempted  to  disprove  some  alleged  cases 
of  c  spontaneous  generation/  than  to  disprove  the  whole 
doctrine.  He  inclined  to  the  belief  that  parasites  were 
produced  from  a  modification  of  the  substance  of  the 

1  The  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley  has  lately  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
Homer  was  fully  aware  of  the  real  origin  of  the  larvae  which  appear  in 
putrefying  carcases.  In  Iliad  xix.  23-27  there  occurs  the  following 
passage : — 

dAAd  fj.a\'  alvws 

AfiSoj  (Mrj   ftoi  To<f>pa  "MevoiTiov  d\KifJ.ov  vlov 
Mufat  Ka58vffai  Kara  xa^KOT^'I 
Eu\as  fjyfivcavrat,  dfiteiffauffi 
*E/f  8'  alwv  irctparai — Kara  8e 

Which  is  thus  rendered  in  the  late  Lord  Derby's  translation  : — 

'  Yet  fear  I  for  Menoetius'  noble  son, 
Lest  in  his  spear-inflicted  wounds  the  flies 
May  gender  worms,  and  desecrate  the  dead, 
And,  life  extinct,  corruption  reach  his  flesh.' 
S 


258  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

animal  in  which  they  were  found.  And,  similarly,  he 
believed  that  the  grubs  which  are  to  be  met  with 
in  the  galls  of  plants,  are  produced  by  a  modification 
of  the  living  substance  of  the  plant — these  galls  being, 
in  fact,  as  he  thought,  organs  destined  to  produce  such 
animals  '.  In  1745,  Needham,  who  was  shortly  after- 
wards elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don, came  forward  with  much  additional  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  doctrine  of c  spontaneous  generation/  and 
affirmed  that,  if  the  mere  putrefaction  of  meat  could 
not  of  itself  engender  insects,  as  Redi  had  shewn,  it 
could  at  least  give  origin  to  myriads  of  microscopic 
animalcules.  Four  years  after  the  publication  of  Need- 
ham's  researches,  the  great  naturalist  Buffon  expounded 
his  views2  concerning  'organic  molecules,'  and  the  uni- 
versal origination  of  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life, 
by  a  process  answering  to  what  was  termed  c  spon- 
taneous generation/  He  said  : — c  There  are,  perhaps, 


1  'Esperienze  intorno  alia  Generazione  degl'  Insetti,'  p.  129.     Redi 
was  therefore  a  partial  believer  in  the  doctrine  which  we  now  name 
Heferogenesis.     According  to  this  doctrine,  as  taught  by  Burdach  and 
others,  strange  living  things  might  be  generated  from  the  matter  of 
pre-existing  living  beings,  both  during  their  life  and  after  their  death. 
In  the  opinion  of  Redi,  however,  such  a  process  could  only  take  place 
whilst  the  parent  organism  was  living  (Loc.  cit.  p.  14).     It  will  after- 
wards be  more  fully  seen  that  this  is  quite  an  unimportant  limitation, 
because  it  is  one  of  a  purely  arbitrary  nature,  based  upon  the  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  time.     We  now  know  that  the  constituent  elemental 
parts  of  one  of  the  higher  organisms  may  continue  to  live  long  after  the 
organism  as  a  whole  is  dead. 

2  These  will  be  referred  to  more  fully  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  259 

as  many  living  things,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  which 
are  produced  by  the  fortuitous  aggregation  of  "mole- 
cules organiques,"  as  there  are  others  which  reproduce 
themselves  by  a  constant  succession  of  generations/ 
But  it  was  the  experiments  of  Needham,  more  espe- 
cially, that  aroused  one  who  was  for  a  long  time  the 
most  celebrated  opponent  of  these  doctrines.  The  re- 
nowned Abbe  Spallanzani  soon  took  up  the  question, 
and  entered  into  a  controversy  with  Needham  on  the 
subject.  He  maintained  that  the  air  of  our  atmosphere 
bears  with  it  everywhere  the  germs  of  infusorial  ani- 
malcules and  of  other  organic  forms,  and  that  Needham 
had  not  taken  sufficient  account  of  this  fact  in  his 
experiments.  In  this  view  he  was  supported  by  the 
fantastic  assumptions  of  Bonnet,  and  their  doctrine — 
since  known  by  the  name  of  ' Panspermism' — has  re- 
ceived the  most  powerful  support  from  Pasteur  and 
others  in  our  own  times.  The  questions  in  dispute 
could  not  be  settled  by  these  two  champions,  and  suc- 
cessive advocates  were  continually  springing  up  in 
favour  of  one  or  other  of  the  adverse  doctrines  till 
the  commencement  of  our  own  century.  Two  of  the 
most  famous  of  them,  Gleichen  and  Otho  F.  Muller, 
were  dissentients  from  the  doctrines  of  Bonnet  and 
Spallanzani.  A  little  later  Treviranus  made  known  an 
important  fact  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of  heterogeny, 
to  the  effect  that  the  species  of  animalcules  found  in 
the  infusions  varied  with,  and  seemed  to  depend  upon, 
minute  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  infusions  them- 

s  2 


260  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

selves.  In  1809  appeared  the  '  Philosophic  Zoologique' 
of  Lamarck,  in  which  he  expressed  himself  strongly  in 
favour  of  the  spontaneous  origination  of  Life — declaring 
that  matter  was  continually  changing,  not  only  in  regard 
to  its  states  of  combination,  but  also  changing  in  its 
nature — that  it  was  now  passing  from  the  living  state 
into  a  lifeless  one,  and  now  again  assuming  the  forms 
and  properties  of  living  matter  under  the  combined  and 
mystic  influence  of  heat,  light,  electricity,  and  moisture. 
c  These  transitions/  he  said,  cfrom  life  to  death  and 
from  death  to  life,  evidently  form  part  of  an  immense 
circle  of  all  kinds  of  changes  to  which,  in  the  course 
of  time,  all  physical  substances  are  submitted.'  But 
such  a  mode  of  origin  was  only  possible,  as  he  thought, 
for  the  lowest  kinds  of  living  things.  This  is  expressed 
in  the  following  passage,  which  he  also  prints  in 
italics : — c  La  nature  a  Paide  de  la  chaleur,  de  la  lumiere^ 
de  F  electricite^  et  de  Fkumidite^  forme  des  generations  spon- 
tanees  ou  directes  a  Pextremite  de  cha^ue  regne  des  corps 
vivants,  ou  se  trouvent  les  plus  simples  de  ces  corps.3  Soon 
afterwards,  two  philosophers,  Cabanis  and  Oken,  also 
declared  their  belief  in  the  possibility  of  a  new  evolu- 
tion of  life  out  of  dead  inanimate  matter.  According 
to  Oken,  cthe  animal  body  is  only  an  edifice  of  mo- 
nads,3 and  c  putrefaction  is  nothing  more  than  the  dis- 
aggregation  of  the  monads,  and  a  return  to  the  primi- 
tive condition  of  the  animal  kingdom.'  Then  fol- 
lowed other  distinguished  naturalists,  amongst  whom  we 
may  mention  Bory  St.  Vincent,  Bremser,  Tiedemann, 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  2:6' I 

J.  Miiller,  Dujardin,  and  Burdach,  who  were  all  more  or 
less  in  favour  of  the  doctrines  of  heterogeny.  These 
views  received  their  fullest  and  most  complete  expo- 
sition, however,  from  the  last  whom  we  have  men- 
tioned. In  his  well-known  work,  Burdach  gave  a  some- 
what detailed  account  of  his  views  on  that  primordial 
mode  of  generation  to  which  he  first  attached  the  name 
cgeneratio  heterogenia.'  But  like  those  of  his  pre- 
decessors and  fellow-countrymen,  Bremser  and  Tie- 
demann,  his  views  were  of  a  retrograde  description, 
when  compared  with  those  of  Lamarck.  He  no  longer 
limited  the  possibility  of  such  a  mode  of  origin  to  the 
lowest  members  of  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  king- 
doms, but  also  contended  that  certain  worms,  insects, 
Crustacea,  and  even  fish  might  in  this  way  appear  upon 
the  scene  without  grdinary  parentage. 

After  him,  however,  came  Pineau  in  1845,  who  de- 
clared that  he  had  actually  watched,  step  by  step,  the 
heterogenetic  origin  and  development  of  two  ciliated 
infusoria — Monas  lens  and  a  Vortnella — and  also  of  a 
microscopic  fungus — Penicillium  glaucum.  This  was  the 
first  announcement  of  a  kind  of  evidence  altogether 
new— based  upon  actual  observation  rather  than  upon 
experimental  inference. 

Advocates  of  the  opposite  or  panspermic  doctrine, 
however,  were  abundant  enough  also  during  the  first 
half  of  the  present  century :  amongst  the  most  distin- 
guished of  these  must  figure  the  names  of  P.  Gervais, 
Schwann,  Schultze,  and  Ehrenberg.  The  latter,  in  his 


262  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

remarkable  c  Memoire  sur  le  developpement  et  la  duree 
de  la  vie  des  infusoires,'  endeavoured  to  establish  the 
fact  that  the  generation  of  infusoria  takes  place  normally 
by  means  of  eggs,  and  that  their  multiplication  by  this 
process,  in  combination  with  that  by  fission,  was  suffi- 
cient to  account  for  their  numbers  in  organic  infusions. 
Schultze  and  Schwann,  however,  sought  to  undermine 
the  position  of  the  heterogenists  by  adducing  experi- 
mental proofs  in  support  of  the  panspermic  doctrine. 
Schultze  alleged  that  no  organisms  of  any  kind  were 
produced  in  a  fermentable  solution  which  had  been 
raised  to  a  temperature  of  212°  F.,  provided  the  air 
which  was  allowed  access  to  this  fluid  had  been  pre- 
viously made  to  traverse  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
so  as  to  free  it  from  all  possible  germs ;  and  Schwann 
stated  that  the  experiments  were,  with  certain  reser- 
vations *,  marked  by  the  same  sterility  when  calcined 
or  highly  heated  air  only  was  allowed  access  to  the 
vessel  containing  the  previously  boiled  solution  of 
organic  matter.  These  assertions,  which  have  been 
subsequently  disproved,  had  an  immense  influence  at 
the  time  against  the  doctrine  of  heterogeny. 

Though  in  the  intervening  years  the  subject  was  still 
worked  at  from  time  to  time,  yet  almost  a  new  epoch 
in  the  controversy  may  be  said  to  have  commenced 

1  His  results  were  conflicting  and  contradictory  whilst  dealing  with 
materials  which  underwent  the  alcoholic  fermentation.  Sometimes 
organisms  were  to  be  met  with  in  such  solutions  in  spite  of  all  his 
precautions. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  263 

about  twelve  years  ago.  Since  this  time,  and  in  France 
more  especially,  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  doctrine  of 
c  spontaneous  generation '  has  formed  the  subject  of  a 
most  vigorous  discussion.  Its  renewal  was  initiated  in 
1858  by  the  communication  of  a  paper  by  M.  Pouchet 
to  the  Academic  des  Sciences  of  Paris,  entitled  c  Note 
sur  des  Proto-organismes  vegetaux  et  animaux  nes 
spontanement  dans  Fair  artificiel  et  dans  le  gaz  oxy- 
gene/  The  views  and  experiments  of  M.  Pouchet 
were  warmly  repudiated  by  men  so  distinguished  as 
MM.  Milne-Edwards,  de  Quatrefages,  Claude  Bernard, 
Dumas,  Payen,  and  Lacaze  Duthiers.  Nevertheless, 
Professor  Mantegazza  very  shortly  afterwards  also  com- 
municated to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  the  results  of 
his  researches  upon  the  generation  of  infusoria,  which 
he  had  previously  laid  before  an  Italian  academy  in 
1852.  The  conclusions  at  which  he  had  arrived  agreed 
almost  perfectly  with  those  of  M.  Pouchet-  and  in 
the  following  year  the  latter  published  his  treatise  on 
c  Hete'rogenie  ],'  in  which  much  new  matter  was  added 
in  support  of  his  doctrines.  But  it  would  be  in  vain 
for  us  now  to  attempt  to  follow  out  all  the  intricacies 
of  the  discussions  which  have  taken  place  since  this 
time2.  Many  of  the  most  interesting  points  will  be 

1  To  this  treatise  we  must  refer  those  also  who  desire  a  more  com- 
plete historical  sketch  than  we  have  deemed  it  necessary  to  give. 

2  This  has  been  attempted  by  M.  Pennetier,  in  a  work  entitled  '  L'Ori- 
gine  de  la  Vie,'  which,  in  addition  to  a  sketch  of  the  later  stages  of  the 
controversy  up  to  the  year  1869,  contains  a  very  complete  list  of  works 
and  papers  on  the  whole  subject,  arranged  in  chronological  order. 


264  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE, 

alluded  to  in  our  succeeding  chapters — though  others 
will  scarcely  be  referred  to,  as  we  wish  to  narrow 
the  question  in  dispute  down  to  its  simplest  issues. 
We  will,  now,  only  state  that  early  in  the  following 
year  an  accomplished  chemist,  M.  Pasteur,  entered  the 
field,  and  henceforth  became  the  most  prominent  ob- 
jector to  the  doctrines  of  heterogeny.  Although  many 
others  have  taken  part  in  the  contest,  still  it  was,  for 
a  long  time,  in  the  main  carried  on  between  M.  Pasteur 
on  the  one  hand  (backed  by  the  immense  moral  support 
of  the  French  Academy)  and  by  MM.  Pouchet,  Joly, 
and  Musset,  on  the  other.  Most  valuable  experimental 
evidence  was,  however,  adduced  in  1862  in  support 
of  the  possibility  of  the  origin  of  living  things  from 
not-living  matter,  by  Professor  Jeffries  Wyman  of 
Cambridge,  U.  S.}  and  in  1 868  by  Professor  Cantoni 
of  Pavia. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

MODE    OF    ORIGIN    OF   PRIMORDIAL   LIVING   THINGS  I 
NATURE    OF   PROBLEM. 

Changes  which  occur  in  an  Organic  Infusion.  Evolution  of  Gas. 
Plastide-particles  and  Bacteria.  Formation  of  '  Pellicle.'  Mode 
of  formation  of  Bacteria.  Views  as  to  their  nature.  Different 
kinds  of  Bacteria  and  allied  organisms — Vibriones,  Leptoihrix,  and 
Spirillum.  Composition  of  '  proligerous  pellicle.'  Views  of  Cohn 
and  Pouchet.  Sometimes  no  '  pellicle'  forms,  only  turbidity,  flocculi, 
or  deposit.  Mode  of  origin  of  Torula.  Views  of  Hallier.  Micro- 
cocci,  cryptococci,  and  arthrococci.  Their  mutual  relations  to  one 
another  and  to  Fungi.  Nature  and  mode  of  origin  of  Sarcina. 
Development  of  Fungus  '  spores.'  Doubt  as  to  mode  of  origin  of 
these  forms.  Useless  to  look  in  Air  for  germs  of  Bacteria.  Mode 
of  appearance  of  these  in  thin  films  of  fluid.  Only  two  explanations 
possible.  Origin  either  germless  or  from  invisible  germs.  Existence 
of  latter  must  not  be  recklessly  postulated.  Similar  problem  in  case 
of  origin  of  Crystals.  Statical  and  dynamical  aggregates.  Solution 
of  problem  concerning  Crystals.  Mr.  Rainey's  observations.  Micro- 
scopical evidence  similar  in  both  cases.  This  can  neither  confirm 
nor  invalidate  the  supposition  as  to  invisible  germs,  crystalline  or 
living.  The  existence  of  both  equally  hypothetical. 

WHEN  a  fluid  containing  an  organic  substance  in 
solution  is  allowed  to  remain  in  contact  with 
air  during  moderately  warm  *  weather,  it  soon  undergoes 

1  Fermentation  usually  ceases  in  an  organic  solution  when  the  tem- 
perature falls  to  about  45°  F. ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  find  that  the  poetic 
imagination  of  Ovid  had,  by  a  kind  of  happy  guess,  led  him  to  attach 


266  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

changes  of  a  putrefactive  or  fermentative  character. 
A  slight  evolution  or  liberation  of  gas  generally  takes 
place  as  the  first  obvious  stage  of  the  process1,  and 
after  a  variable  time  (hours  or  days,  according  to  the 
temperature,  the  nature  of  the  solution,  and  other 
modifying  conditions)  during  which  the  infusion  has 
gradually  become  more  and  more  turbid,  a  slight  whitish, 
though  semi-translucent,  scum  or  pellicle,  that  soon 
thickens  into  a  membrane,  makes  its  appearance  on 
the  surface  of  the  fluid.  This  constitutes  the  c  primor- 
dial mucous  layer'  of  Burdach,  or  the  cproligerous 

the  same  importance  to  the  influence  of  solar  heat  in  the  evolution  of 
Life  which  modern  science  now  allots  to  it.  We  have  already  quoted 
one  passage  to  this  effect,  but  here  is  another : — 

'  Ergo  ubi  diluvio  tellus  lutulenta  recenti 
Solibus  aetheriis,  altoque  recanduit  aestu, 
Edidit  innumeras  species.' 

1  This  may  be  well  seen  by  adding  to  the  fermentable  infusion  suffi- 
cient isinglass  to  '  set'  the  fluid  slightly.  The  bubbles  of  gas  liberated, 
are  for  a  long  time  retained  in  the  slightly  gelatinous  liquid,  and  may  be 
seen  throughout  its  substance.  Very  contradictory  opinions  prevail  as 
to  the  order  of  appearance  and  cause  of  this  gaseous  evolution.  M.  Pas- 
teur believes  that  the  evolution  of  gas  takes  place  after  the  appearance 
and  on  account  of  the  changes  induced  by  the  presence  of  organisms. 
In  his  opinion  all  fermentations  are  brought  about  by  the  presence  and 
development  of  organisms  (derived  from  the  atmosphere)  in  the  fer- 
menting fluids.  His  opponents,  however,  maintain  that  the  organisms 
are  results  of  chemical  changes  brought  about  by  physical  conditions 
in  the  molecularly  mobile  and  unstable  matter  of  an  organic  infusion, 
and  that  the  gaseous  evolution  is  dependent  upon  some  of  these  ante- 
cedent, or  formative,  chemical  changes.  The  gases  most  commonly 
liberated  in  fermentations  and  putrefactions  are  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  ammonia. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  267 

pellicle '  of  Pouchet.  On  microscopical  examination  of 
the  fluid  by  the  highest  powers,  as  soon  as  it  begins  to 
grow  clouded,  it  will  be  found  swarming  with  multitudes 
of  mere  moving  specks  or  spherical  particles,  inter- 
mixed with  short  staff-like  bodies,  known  as  Bacteria, 
which  also  exhibit  more  or  less  active  movements.  The 
specks,  that  have  hitherto  been  called  c  Monads1 }  or 
'microzymes2,'  I  shall  henceforth  term  plastide-particles. 
They  are  primordial  particles  of  living  matter,  and 
may  be  seen,  with  our  present  optical  powers,  to  vary 
between  -^-oW"  and  ¥^w"  in  diameter. 

An  examination  of  the  c  pellicle,'  moreover,  shows 
that  it  is  composed  of  a  dense  superficial  aggregation 
of  such  bodies  as  may  previously  have  been  found 
diffused  through  the  liquid.  In  addition  to  plastide- 
particles  and  Bacteria,  however,  other  low  organisms,  of 

1  Much  confusion  results  from  the  classifications  of  the  older  natu- 
ralists, who  (following  O.  F.  Miiller)  arranged  under  the  same  genus 
(Monas)  the  mere  moving  specks  above  referred  to,  and  also  certain  of 
the  most  elementary  and  smaller  of  the  Ciliated  Infusoria — of  which  the 
so-called  Monas  lens  is  about  the  most  abundant  representative.     It  will 
now  be  better,  in  order  not  to  clash  with  modern  usage,  to  follow  the 
example  already  set  by  others,  and  to  restrict  the  word  '  Monad '  to  the 
ciliated  organisms  which  have  lately  been  so  well  described  by  Cien- 
kowski  and  others. 

2  They  were  called  Microzyma  by  B^champ,  but  I  do  not  adopt  this 
designation,  because  it  is  too  special.    All  minute  living  particles,  whose 
nature  cannot  be  distinguished  by  the  microscope,  may  well  be  desig- 
nated by  one   generally  applicable   name.      Minute  off-castings   from 
white  blood  corpuscles  are  quite  indistinguishable  microscopically  from 
the  living  specks  which  appear  in  fermenting  solutions,  and  yet  it  would 
not  be  reasonable  to  call  the  former  '  small  ferments '  (microzymae). 


268  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

which  we  shall  subsequently  speak,  are  very  often  found 
in  both  situations. 

With  regard  to  the  mode  of  origin  and  nature  of 
Bacteria^  much  difference  of  opinion  still  exists.  They 
have  been  supposed  by  some  persons  to  result  from  the 
coalescence  and  fusion  of  plastide-particles ;  whilst 
the  longer  and  more  developed  bodies,  called  Vibriones, 
have  been  thought  to  result  from  a  similar  union  of 
Bacteria. 

This  is  the  view  of  M.  Dumas  and  of  Dr.  Hughes 
Bennett,  though  it  is  doubted  by  Pouchet  and  most 
other  observers.  It  seems  much  more  probable  that 
both  Bacteria  and  Vibriones  are  only  later  stages  in  the 
growth  and  development  of  certain  primary  plastide- 
particles.  Dr.  Bennett1  states  that  he  has  actually 
seen  the  union  above  referred  to  taking  place ;  but, 
judging  from  my  own  experience,  I  should  say  that  it 
is  an  occurrence  of  the  most  extreme  rarity.  During 
a  very  long  series  of  observations  I  have  never  per- 
ceived such  a  coalescence. 

The  most  discordant  opinions  have  always  existed 
as  to  the  nature  of  these  Bacteria.  Naturalists  have 
been  in  doubt  as  to  whether  they  should  be  regarded 
as  independent  living  things  of  the  lowest  grade, 
having  an  individuality  of  their  own  ;  or  whether, 
rather,  they  should  be  looked  upon  as  developmental 
forms  of  some  higher  organisms  —  either  animal  or 
vegetal.  There  seem  to  be  four  principal  views  con- 

1  'Pop.  Science  Rev.,'  Jan.  1869. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  269 

cerning  them: — (i)  that  they  are  animal  organisms  of 
the  lowest  grade,  having  an  individuality  of  their  own, 
as  conjectured  by  Ehrenberg;  (2)  that  they  are,  as 
supposed  by  Hallier,  of  the  nature  of  spores,  produced 
from,  and  destined  again  to  develop  into,  some  of  the 
simplest  microscopic  fungi ] ;  (3)  that  they  represent, 

1  This  view  has  been  advocated  by  Dr.  Polotebnow  of  St.  Petersburg, 
in  a  memoir  presented  to  the  Vienna  Academy  on  June  3,  1869.  He 
thinks  that  Bacterium,  Vibrio,  and  Spirillum  are  all  developmental  stages 
of  Penicillium  glaucum.  Prof.  Huxley  has  lately  ('  Quart.  Journal  of 
Microsc.  Science,'  Oct.  1870,  p.  360)  expressed  opinions  having  a  similar 
bearing.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  from  the  words  which  are  placed  in 
italics,  that  Prof.  Huxley's  views  on  this  subject  are,  in  part,  mere  sur- 
mises, rather  than  positive  impressions  based  on  a  complete  research. 
He  says : — '  With  Torula,  then,  we  find  Bacteria  in  great  numbers  in  this 
quiescent  state.  Usually  masses  are  to  be  seen  adhering  very  closely  or 
tightly  to  one  Torula  cell  or  another,  and  such  masses  are  very  difficult 
to  separate  from  the  cell  to  which  they  are  fixed.  //  seems  probable  that 
the  Bacteria  proceed  in  this  way  from  the  Torula  cells,  as  the  Torula 
cells  do  from  Conidia.  //  is  probable  that  Bacterium  is  a  similar  thing 
to  Torula — a  simplest  stage  in  the  development  of  a  fungus.  By  sowing 
Conidia  you  also  get  Bacteria  in  abundance.  You  get  the  Bacteria 
adhering  like  this  (fig.  6,  d)  to  the  Conidia,  and  they  are,  /  believe, 
developed  from  the  protoplasm  of  the  Conidia  just  as  Torulae  are ;  and 
we  may  compare  these  two  forms  to  the  Microgonidia  and  Macro- 
gonidia  of  Algae.  They  are  all  terms  in  the  development  of  Penicillium.' 
With  reference  to  this  theory,  my  own  observations  make  me  certain 
that  Bacteria  may  appear  in  solutions  (thin  films)  where  no  Torula 
exists.  And  more  rarely,  Torula  cells  may  be  seen  in  myriads  in 
infusions,  not  only  without  attached  Bacteria,  but  even  without  any 
discoverable  Bacteria  in  the  free  state.  I  am  quite  familiar  with  this 
appearance,  as  of  budding  Bacteria,  in  connection  with  Torulce  and 
certain  mycelial  filaments.  I  look  upon  it,  however,  as  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule ;  and  even  where  it  exists,  it  seems  by  no  means 
clear  that  the  appearance  is  not  due  to  the  mere  adhesion  of  some  of  the 
previously  free  Bacteria,  which,  in  such  cases,  are  always  to  be  found 
co-existing  with  the  Torula  or  .F««§^s-filaments. 


270  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

as  Cohn 1  thinks,  the  later  free-swimming  stage  in  the 
existence  of  certain  algae,  intermediate  between  Pal- 
mell<e  and  Oscillator!* ;  or  lastly  (4)  that  they  are 
the  first  and  most  common  developmental  phase  of 
newly- evolved  specks  of  living  matter,  which  are  capa- 
ble, either  singly  or  in  combination,  of  developing  into 
many  different  kinds  of  living  things. 

Ehrenberg's  is  an  almost  obsolete  point  of  view. 
Bacteria  are  no  more  animal  than  vegetal  organisms  — 
they  are  protists.  And  few  even  of  the  firmest  believers 
in  the  constancy  of  specific  forms  would  now  be  in- 
clined to  maintain  this  doctrine  with  respect  to  Bacteria. 
The  opinions  of  Hallier  and  Cohn  will  be  again  referred 
to  in  other  portions  of  this  chapter. 

I  have  been  compelled  to  take  the  fourth  view, 
and  to  look  upon  plastide-particles  as  the  mere  tem- 
porary and  initial  developmental  form  of  many  or- 
ganisms which  may  afterwards  present  distinct  cha- 
racteristics of  their  own2,  though  certain  of  these 
particles  may,  through  default  of  the  necessary  con- 
ditions, never  actually  develop  into  higher  modes  of 
being.  But  a  very  large  number  of  them  undoubtedly 
give  rise  to  the  bodies  known  as  Bacteria,  by  a  direct 
process  of  growth  and  development.  These  Bacteria 
vary  very  considerably  in  size,  and  also  in  the 
quality  of  their  movements.  Their  sifce  seems  to 

1  '  Entwickelungs-geschichte  der  Mikroscop.'    Algen  und  Pilze,  1854. 

2  Many  of  what  may  seem  to  be  mere  plastide-particles,  are  only 
Bacteria  seen  endwise. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  271 

differ  according  to  the  degree  of  putrescibility  of  the 
solution,  the  amount  of  heat  to  which  it  has  been 
exposed.,  and  other  modifying  circumstances.  Those 
which  have  been  produced  at  the  same  time  are  often 
pretty  uniform  in  size,  so  that  the  different  dimensions 
are  frequently  more  marked  in  different  solutions  than 
between  Bacteria  existing  in  the  same  solution.  They 
are,  in  their  most  common  form,  straight,  rod-like 
bodies,  varying  in  length  from  TTJ^"  to  ^W"  of  an 
inch ;  and  they  generally  present  a  joint  or  line  in  the 
middle,  dividing  them  into  two  equal  parts.  Their 
movements  are  frequently  of  a  more  or  less  rapid, 
oscillating,  or  irregularly-rotating  character;  though  at 
other  times  they  may  be  seen  darting  from  place  to 
place,  either  directly  or  in  curves  of  various  de- 
scriptions. All  gradations  exist,  in  fact,  between 
movements  which  suffice  at  once  to  stamp  them  as 
living  things,  and  mere  slow  oscillations,  the  presence 
of  which  alone  may  make  us  doubtful  as  to  whether 
we  have  to  do  with  living  or  with  dead  organisms. 

It  should  be  distinctly  understood,  however,  that 
such  Bacteria  as  are  above  described,  with  all  their 
differences  in  size,  only  constitute  one  variety  of  the 
many  lower  forms  of  life  met  with  in  organic  solu- 
tions. The  most  varied  and  diverse  forms  of  these 
simple  organisms  exist,  and  the  Bacterium  already 
alluded  to  is  only  to  be  considered  as  the  most  con- 
stant and  abundantly  represented  type.  Instead  of  the 
rigid,  simple,  or  bi-segmented,  staff-like  bodies,  we  may 


272  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

see — intermixed  with  these — other  bi-segmented  bodies 
less  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  which,  instead  of  being 
perfectly  rigid,  have  a  flexible  joint,  so  that  the  two 
segments  are  freely  movable.  These  bodies  (about  as 
large  as  medium-sized,  ordinary  Bacteria)  generally  ex- 
hibit the  most  active  movements — darting  about  from 
place  to  place  with  rapid  eel-like  bendings  of  their  body. 
Other  forms  are  not  unfrequently  met  with  in  which 


00 

,«**.""'     ""  '•* 


FIG.  17. 

Some  of  the  most  common  Primordial  Forms  of  Life  :  Bacteria, 
Torula,  &c.      X  800. 

the  tendency  to  assume  a  bicellular  shape  is  more 
obvious  —  though  their  bodies  are  similarly  rigid,  and 
their  movements  are  not  more  active  tbian  those  ordi- 
narily displayed  by  Bacteria.  Whilst  the  common 
Bacterium  looks  like  a  solid  simple  or  bi-segmented  rod, 
these  latter  forms  seem  rather  to  be  made  up  of  two 
juxtaposed,  minute,  cell-like  elements,  and  in  their 
early  stages  present  the  appearance  of  m^re  figure-of-8 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  2*73 

particles.  We  also  frequently  see  straight  necklace-like 
rows  composed  of  from  two  to  fifteen  bead-shaped 
bodies  about  the  size  of  ordinary  plastide-particles, 
though  having  a  more  hollow  appearance.  These  aggre- 
gates are  either  motionless,  or  they  exhibit  a  slow 
vibratile  movement1.  Not  unfrequently  organisms 
are  met  with  which  present  an  appearance  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  the  smaller  vegetative  cells  of 
the  yeast-fungus — commonly  known  by  the  name  of 
Torulg  -,  they  are,  however,  more  minute  than  these,  and 
seem  rather  solid  than  cellular — presenting  no  evidences 
of  a  nucleus.  One  spherule  is  frequently  seen  with  a 
much  smaller  bud-like  particle  attached,  and  they  may 
exhibit  pretty  active  oscillations,  though  never  move- 
ments of  a  more  extensive  nature.  In  addition,  there 
are  to  be  seen  in  fermenting  fluids  more  than  ordinarily 
refractive  particles,  between  which  and  minute  though 
obvious  Fungus-spores  or  Torula  cells  all  intermediate 
forms  can  be  detected. 

These  are  the  simplest  organisms  most  frequently  met 

1  Such  chaplet-like  combinations  are  CQnsidered  by  Pasteur  to  be  very 
minute  Torulacea,  but  I  think  they  are  more  closely  allied  to  Bacteria 
than  to  Torula.  They  are  almost  invariably  to  be  met  with  in  urine  in 
company  with  other  organisms  when  this  is  undergoing  change.  Indeed 
Pasteur  even  says: — '  Je  suis  tres  port6  a  croire  que  cette  production  con 
stitue  un  ferment  organise,  et  qu'il  n'y  a  jamais  transformation  de  1'ur^e 
en  carbonate  d'ammoniaque  sans  la  presence  et  le  developpement  de  ce 
petit  vegetal.'  It  develops  in  the  body  of  the  liquid  and  not  specially  at 
the  surface,  where  we  frequently  meet  with  a  pellicle  made  up  of  bodies 
of  the  kind  next  to  be  mentioned.  Both  these  forms,  however,  may  be 
found  in  fluids  which  are  altogether  different  in  nature. 

T 


274 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


with,  though  very  many  other  modifications  of  form 
may  be  encountered,  and  will  soon  become  familiar 
to  those  who  work  much  at  this  subject. 

With   respect   to   the    larger   organisms    known    as 


FIGS.  1 8. 
Other  Early  Forms  of  Life  from  Organic  Infusions. 

a.  Vibriones. 

b.  Different  kinds  of  simple  Leptothrix. 

c.  Spirilla. 

d.  Mycelial  filaments  of  an  incipient  Fungus  (Hallier). 

e.  Branched  Leptotbrix  or  mycelial  filaments  (Pasteur). 

Ftbriones1,  these  are  two  or  many-jointed  bodies,  com- 
posed of  long  rod-like  segments  bent  at  various  angles, 
which  exhibit  certain  slow  movements — either  a  mere 

1  These  Vibriones  of  organic  solutions  are  totally  different  organisms 
from  the  minute  Nematoid  worms  to  which  the  name  has  also  been  very 
improperly  applied — the  so-called  Vibrio  tritici,  for  instance. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  275 

bending  of  the  body,  or  else  an  actual  progression  of 
an  undulating  anguilluloid  character.  In  size  they  may 
vary  from  that  of  the  largest  'Bacterium  up  to  a  body 
-faf"  in  length  by  TTVrro"  in  breadth,  though  there  is  no 
definite  limit  to  their  dimensions.  Notwithstanding 
the  observations  of  Dumas  and  Bennett,  it  cannot  be 
considered  that  these  are  ordinarily  produced  by  the 
aggregation  of  Bacteria.  It  seems  much  more  consistent 
with  what  may  be  observed,  to  believe  that  they  arise 
by  the  gradual  development  of  simple  Bacteria,  which — 
from  some  cause  unknown  to  us — do  not  undergo 
such  frequent  processes  of  fission,  and  possess  a  great 
inherent  power  of  growth.  M.  Davaine  has  also 
described  certain  straight  or  slightly  bent,  though 
motionless,  bodies,  closely  resembling  Vibriones  as  far  as 
size  and  general  appearance  are  concerned,  to  which 
he  has  given  the  name  Bacteridia1.  These  are  the 
organisms  met  with  in  the  blood  of  animals  suffering 

1  He  looks  upon  Bacteria  and  Vibrio  as  genera  which  are  closely 
allied  to  the  Oscillatorite,  and  thinks  that  these  Bacteridia  form  a  still 
closer  connecting  link.  Many  of  them  are,  in  fact,  even  longer  than 
Vibriones,  and  therefore  in  point  of  size  they  do  approach  more  closely 
to  the  Oscillatorlce.  M.  Davaine  says  he  has  also  met  with  many  kinds  of 
Vibriones  in  the  intestines  of  mammals  and  birds,  as  well  as  in  salt-water 
infusions,  which  have  been  invariably  motionless  throughout  their  whole 
period  of  existence.  He  maintains  that  when  those  species  which  have 
previously  exhibited  movements  cease  to  manifest  them,  we  must  by  no 
means  look  upon  them  as  necessarily  dead :  such  organisms  may  pre- 
serve an  unchanged  appearance  for  many  days  or  weeks,  whilst,  when 
they  really  die,  they  undergo  disintegration  in  from  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours.  (See  '  Compt.  Rend.'  1864,  and  '  Gaz.  Med.  de  Paris,' 
1864.) 


276 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


from  a  certain  pestilential  disease1;  and  although  they 
may,  as  M.  Davaine  imagines,  exhibit  close  affinities 


FIG.  19. 

Oscillatoria   and   other   simple   Fresh-water   Algae   (Hassall2).     These 
forms  are  known  by  the  following  names : — 


a.  Lyngbya  prolific  a. 

b.  „       vermicularis. 

c.  Rapbidia  viridis. 

d.  Tolypotbrix  rufescens. 


e.  Microcoleus  gracilis. 

f.  Oscillatoria  aulumnalis. 

g.  „          splendida. 
b.  Spirillum  Jenneri. 


i.  Nostoc  commune. 


to  the  low  algae  known  as  Oscillatoria^  they,  on  the 


1  The  '  Miltzbrand,'  '  sang  de  rate,'  or  '  the  blood,'  as  it  is  called  in 
different   countries;    and  from  the  contagion  of  which   the  Malignant 
Pustule  of  man  is  produced. 

2  Selected  from  Hassall's  'British  Fresh -Water  Algae,'  in  order  to 
show  the  simple  structure  of  the  filaments. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  277 

other  hand,  are  just  as  closely  related  to  Leptothrix, 
and  through  these  to  the  lower  kinds  of  Fungi  known 
as  c  moulds.'  Leptothrix  filaments  are  also,  for  the 
most  part,  quite  motionless,  and  are  often  not  much 
thicker  than  Vihiones.  They  may  be  either  straight  or 
undulating  in  outline,  and  perfectly  plain  or  marked 
by  minute  segmentations  after  the  fashion  of  the 
larger  fungus  filaments  into  which  they  sometimes 
develop.  In  addition  to  the  larger  organisms  already 
mentioned,  there  are  other  rarer  forms,  belonging  to 
the  genus  Spirillum,  characterized  by  the  most  active 
movements,  and  in  which  the  body  is  thread-like 
though  twisted  into  the  form  of  a  helix  or  spiral. 

It  will  be  easily  understood  that  the  nature  of  the 
pellicle  must  vary  very  much  in  different  solutions, 
according  to  the  varying  proportions  in  which  these 
several  kinds  of  organic  units  and  organisms  enter  into 
its  composition.  All  are  agreed,  however,  that  plastide 
specks  and  the  more  minute  and  simpler  organisms 
are  the  first  things  to  make  their  appearance  in  pre- 
viously homogeneous  solutions;  and  that,  later,  whilst 
these  increase  in  number,  there  may  gradually  appear 
Vibnones,  Leptothrix  filaments.  Fungus-spores,  or  some  of 
the  other  lower  forms  of  life.  A  very  large  propor- 
tion of  the  organisms  met  with  in  organic  infusions 
are  Bacteria,  and  their  life  and  active  movements 
continue  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter  period,  the  duration 
of  which  is  altogether  uncertain.  After  a  time,  at 
all  events,  they  gradually  tend  to  accumulate  at  the 


278  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

surface  of  the  solution,  and,  becoming  motionless, 
to  form  a  very  densely  aggregated  but  pretty  uniform 
layer  of  a  more  or  less  granular  appearance,  consti- 
tuting the  so-called  cproligerous  pellicle.'  But  even 
the  simplest  pellicle  is  not  constituted  solely  by  the 
mere  aggregation  of  these  bodies.  As  pointed  out  by 
Cohn1,  the  organic  particles  are  surrounded  by,  and 
imbedded  in,  a  thin  pellucid  and  almost  invisible  jelly- 
like  stratum,  which  is  best  revealed,  in  a  microscopical 
specimen,  after  the  addition  of  a  drop  of  a  dilute 
aqueous  solution  of  iodine.  The  gelatinous  matter 
is  not  coloured  by  this  reagent,  and  is  thus  rendered 
apparent. 

The  pellicle  gradually  continues  to  increase  in  thick- 
ness, and  owing  to  the  additions  being  made  from 
below,  its  under  surface  frequently  becomes  very 
irregular,  from  the  presence  of  numerous  bosselated 
projections.  As  fast  as  the  Bacteria  and  plastide- 
particles  accumulate,  they  appear  to  become  surrounded 
by  the  almost  invisible  gelatinous  material  above  re- 
ferred to.  In  this  condition  they  are  motionless,  and 
it  has  been  assumed,  without  sufficient  proof,  by 
Pouchet  and  most  of  the  other  heterogenists,  that  they 
were  also  dead.  Bacteria  which  are  really  dead,  how- 
ever, do  not  become  enveloped  in  such  a  material. 
The  observations  of  Cohn,  which  I  have  frequently 
confirmed,  show  that  the  Bacteria  again  begin  to  move  as 
soon  as  any  of  them  may  have  been  set  free  from  the 

1  'Entwick.  Geschichte  der  Mikros.     Algen  und  Pilze,  1854.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  2-79 

gelatinous  layer  in  which  they  had  been  imbedded1. 
They  do  not,  however,  resume  their  active  movements 
of  translation.  They  merely  exhibit  more  or  less  rapid 
oscillations,  which,  although  quite  compatible  with  life, 
differ  in  no  important  respect  from  the  Bro-wnian  move- 
ments which  would  be  displayed  by  similarly-light  not- 
living  particles. 

It  is  the  presence  of  the  gelatinous  material  which 
gives  consistence  to  the  pellicle,  and  makes  the  name 
c  primordial  mucus,'  bestowed  upon  it  by  Burdach,  more 
suitable  than  it  would  otherwise  have  been/ 

1  Whilst  agreeing  with  Cohn  so  far  as  this  observation  is  concerned, 
I  by  no  means  agree  with  him  in  his  general  estimate  of  the  life- 
history  of  the  Bacteria.  On  account  of  their  existence  in  the  above- 
named  jelly,  more  especially,  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  Bacteria 
.  ere  most  closely  allied  to  certain  algse,  composing  the  genera  Palmella 
and  Tefraspora,  which  have  a  similar  gelatinous  stage  of  existence. 
He  considers  that  they  have  affinities  with  these  on  the  one  hand,  and 
with  the  Oscillalorice  on  the  other.  The  gelatinous  condition  represents 
the  early  stage  in  the  life-history  of  Palmellce  and  Telrasporce.  In  the 
later  stages  the  cells  previously  contained  in  the  jelly  loosen  them- 
selves, and  become  independent,  free-swimming  organisms.  Cohn  thinks 
that  a  similar  order  is  observed  in  the  life-history  of  Bacteria.  He 
believes  that  these  appear  first  in  solutions  as  small  jelly-masses,  which 
gradually  increase,  unite,  and  grow  into  a  uniform  pellicle,  out  of  which 
the  Bacteria  ultimately  appear  as  free-swimming  organisms.  The  real 
order  is,  as  I  think,  precisely  the  reverse.  At  first  they  are  independent 
bodies,  in  the  form  of  minute  moving  organisms  scattered  through  the 
fluid.  After  a  time  they  gradually  accumulate  in  the  midst  of  the  fluid, 
or,  more  commonly,  at  the  surface,  and,  becoming  motionless,  are  found 
to  be  imbedded  in  a  pellucid  jelly.  What  is  the  mode  of  origin  of 
this  jelly — whether  it  also  merely  accumulates  at  the  surface,  or  whether 
it  is  formed  around  and  by  the  Bacteria  in  this  situation — nobody  seems 
to  know,  although  the  latter  seems  to  be  the  more  probable  supposition. 
It  certainly  is  a  most  important  constituent  of  the  pellicle. 


280  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

The  pellicle  that  forms  at  first  is,  however,  not 
always  persistent :  after  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours 
it  may  sink  to  the  bottom,  whilst  another  gradually 
takes  its  place  which  may  prove  more  durable.  It  is 
not  very  plain  why  some  pellicles  break  up  and  sink 
in  this  way,  but  it  would  seem  very  probable  that  such 
an  occurrence  may  be  associated  with  an  imperfect 
secretion  or  formation  of  that  transparent  jelly  which, 
in  ordinary  cases,  so  much  helps  to  give  it  coherency 
and  strength,  and  whose  presence  is  probably  as  ne- 
cessary in  order  that  subsequent  evolutional  changes 
may  ensue.  In  some  infusions  or  fermentable  solutions, 
however,  no  distinct  pellicle  is  ever  formed.  Flocculi 
may  appear  in  the  clouded  liquid,  which,  after  a  time, 
sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel ;  or,  without  the 
formation  of  flocculi,  a  deposit  gradually  accumulates, 
whilst  the  previously  clouded  supernatant  liquid  be- 
comes more  or  less  clear. 

Occasionally  it  happens  that  the  substance  of  a 
pellicle  may  be  almost  wholly  composed  of  minute 
Torula  cells — Bacteria  being  well-nigh  absent.  I  once 
saw  a  very  remarkable  instance  of  this  in  an  infusion 
of  turnip.  In  certain  of  the  cases,  also,  in  which  no 
distinct  pellicle  forms,  the  fine  sediments  or  flocculi 
which  gradually  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel — 
more  especially  when  the  infusion  has  an  acid  reaction — 
are  found  to  consist  either1  wholly  or  largely  of  vegetating 
Torula  cells. 

1  In  two  or  three  cases  I  have  failed,  after  a  long  search,  to  find  a 
single  Bacterium  amongst  the  myiiads  of  Torula  cells. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  281 

Since  only  a  casual  allusion  has  hitherto  been  made 
to  the  mode  of  origin  of  Torultf,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  speak  more  distinctly  concerning  this  subject,  and 
also  with  reference  to  the  mode  of  origin  of  other 
forms  of  Fungus-spores  in  solutions  in  which  previously 
no  such  incipient  organisms  could  be  recognized.  They 
appear,  as  a  general  rule,  to  arise  somewhat  more 
slowly  than  Bacteria,  and  their  existence  is  often  sig- 
nificant of  a  lower  or  impaired  fermentative  energy  in 
the  solution  in  which  they  occur. 

As  to  the  origin  of  ordinary  Torula  cells,  their  first 
appearance  may  be  watched  in  various  kinds  of 
solutions,  though  I  have  found  none  more  suitable  for 
this  purpose  than  a  weak  solution  of  neutral  ammonic 
tartrate  in  distilled  water1.  During  the  past  summer 
I  found  that  Bacteria  and  Torula  cells  soon  appeared  in 
such  a  solution  when  placed  in  a  flat-bottomed  watch- 
glass  and  merely  protected  by  an  inverted  glass.  After 
twenty-four  hours  or  more  (according  to  the  tempera- 
ture), if  the  watch-glass  be  removed,  without  shaking, 
to  the  stage  of  a  microscope,  and  if  the  flattened  portion 
of  the  surface  of  the  glass  be  scrutinized  by  a  powerful 
immersion  lens2,  numerous  small  but  quite  distinct 
colonies  of  Torula  cells  may  be  seen  scattered  over  this 
area,  the  members  of  which  are  perfectly  motionless3. 

1  About  10  or  15  grains  of  the  crystalline  salt  to  an  ounce  of  water. 

2  I   generally   employ   a   •£%"   objective,   and   frequently  double    its 
ordinary  magnifying  power  by  the  use  of  a  long  draw-tube,  so  as  to  get 
an  amplification  of  about  1000  diameters. 

3  Other  Torula  cells,  however,  often  exhibit  distinct  oscillating  move- 
ments. 


282  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

In  these  several  patches  there  may  be  seen  delicate 
ovoid  Torula  cells  of  almost  any  size  beneath  g^Vo"  m 
diameter.  The  larger  cells  are  united  in  little  groups 
of  twos  and  threes,  and  budding  from  them  may  be 
seen  pullulating  projections  of  different  sizes.  Separate 
cells  also  exist,  smaller  and  smaller  in  size,  till  at  last 
they  cease  to  be  cellular  in  form,  and  we  see  only 
peculiarly  refractive  dots  or  specks  less  than  -g^^V  m 
diameter.  In  other  places  a  colony  of  Torula  cells 
seems  to  be  about  to  grow  up.  Here  there  may  be 
seen  merely  one  or  two  of  the  smallest  bodies  which 
distinctly  display  the  cellular  form  interspersed  amongst 
a  variable  number  of  the  refractive  specks  of  all  sizes 
down  to  the  minimum  visible  stage.  And  when  such  a 
patch  is  marked  and  watched  "at  different  intervals 
a  crop  of  perfect  Torula  cells  is  soon  seen  to  occupy 
the  same  situation.  The  Torula  cells  do  undoubtedly 
multiply  pretty  rapidly  by  a  process  of  gemmation1, 
when  they  have  attained  their  full  size,  and  possibly 
also  they  may  increase  by  processes  of  fission  during 
their  earlier  stages.  Accordingly,  their  distribution  is 
such  as  might  have  been  expected  amongst  such  self- 
multiplying  units.  Very  rapid  processes  of  sub-division 
cannot  be  recognized  amongst  ordinary  plastide-par- 
ticles  and  JZacterla^  although  many  persons  assume  that 
such  phenomena  do  take  place 2,  and,  moreover,  when 

1  M.  Pouchet  doubts  the  occurrence  of  this  mode  of  multiplication 
('Nouvelles  Experiences,'  &c.,  1864,  p.  168). 

2  I  have  actually  seen  the  fissiparous  division   of  a  Bacterium  only 
on  comparatively  few  occasions. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  283 

these  first  appear  in  a  homogeneous  film  of  fluid,  they 
present  a  more  or  less  uniform  distribution.  Torula 
cells,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  seen  to  pullulate 
and  multiply,  and  being  motionless,  are  observed  to  be 
distributed,  not  uniformly  but  in  groups  or  colonies 
through  certain  fluids  in  which  they  did  not  previously 
exist.  As  to  the  origin  of  the  minute  specks  or 
plastide  -  particles  which  subsequently  develop  into 
Torula  cells,  two  views  may  be  taken :  either  (i),  they 
are  the  developed  representatives  of  pre-existing,  though 
not-visible,  particles  which  have  been  derived  from  the 
spores  or  filaments  of  pre-existing  Fungi,  or  (2),  they 
are  the  representatives  of  previously  invisible  particles 
of  living  matter  which  have  originated  de  novo. 

The  former  is  the  doctrine  advocated  by  Professor 
Hallier,  of  Jena,  whose  views  on  this  subject  we  may 
now  briefly  epitomise.  Such  bodies  as  I  have  been 
terming  plastide  -  particles,  Professor  Hallier  names 
c  micrococci.*  He,  also,  regards  them  as  minute  par- 
ticles of  plasma,  or  naked  living  matter,  though  he 
assigns  to  such  particles  a  very  definite  mode  of  origin. 
He  believes  them  to  be  produced  by  the  repeated 
subdivision  of  the  nuclei  of  some  fungus-spores,  .or 
by  the  breaking  up  of  the  protoplasmic  contents  of 
certain  larger  reproductive  cells  produced  by  fungi. 
Although  not  recognized  by  other  botanists,  Hallier 
regards  the  production  of  micrococci,  after  the  manner 
stated,  to  be  a  normal  occurrence  in  the  life-history 
of  many  of  the  smaller  fungi.  Whilst  disagreeing 


284  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

with  him  in  this  view,  my  own  observations  do 
pretty  closely  accord  with  his,  as  to  the  future  fate 
of  these  so-called  'micrococci.'  When  introduced  into 
a  fluid  capable  of  undergoing  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion, they  develop,  according  to  Hallier,  into  bodies 
resembling  ordinary  yeast  cells  or  Torul*  (named  by 
him  c  cryptococci'),  whereas  in  an  acid  fluid,  or  one 
which  becomes  acid  by  the  establishment  of  a  new 
kind  of  fermentation,  they  assume  an  elongated  form, 
and  constitute  one  variety  of  what  are  ordinarily  termed 


•'      -v'    • 


FIG.  20. 
The  '  Micrococci'  and  '  Cryptococci'  of  Hallier. 

Bacteria  (or  c  arthrococci '  in  the  nomenclature  of 
Hallier).  Micrococci  and  arthrococci  are  said  to  mul- 
tiply by  fission,  whilst  cryptococci  increase  by  a  process 
of  gemmation.  By  an  elongating  growth,  accompanied 
by  the  formation  of  septa  at  intervals,  arthrococci  are 
said  to  be  capable  of  developing  into  distinct  fungi 
of  the  Qldium  type.  Thus,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  fluids,  '  micrococci '  develop  either  at  once  into 
Torula  cells,  from  which  a  mycelium  and  a  perfect 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  285 

fungus  may  result;  or  else  into  Bacteria,  which  also 
may  develop  into  segmented  filaments,  and  thence 
into  distinct  Fungi  of  a  different  type.  These  various 
kinds  of  Fungi,  thus  resulting  from  the  development 
of  mere  micrococci  (or  plastide-particles),  are  supposed 
by  Hallier  to  be  capable  of  reproducing  micrococci  in 
the  manner  already  indicated  by  a  breaking-up  and 
individualisation  of  the  protoplasmic  contents  of  cer- 
tain reproductive  cells1.  Thus  he  claims  to  have  shown 
that  such  particles,  and  Bacteria,  are  merely  the  ultimate 
reproductive  elements  of  Fungi;  and  he  also  tries  to 
show  that  they  are  the  active  infective  agents  in  the 
establishment  of  cholera  and  many  other  contagious 
diseases2. 

1  See  Twelfth  Report  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  Privy  Council,  1870, 
p.  243  ('  Introductory  Report  on  the  Intimate  Pathology  of  Contagion'). 
It  will  be  seen  on  p.  245  of  this  '  Report'  that  Dr.  Sanderson  proposes  to 
include  micrococci,  arthrococci,  other  forms  of  Bacteria,  and  Bacteridia, 
under  the  single  designation '  microzymes.'    This,  however,  we  consider  for 
many  reasons  undesirable.     '  Microzyme'  seems  to  be  too  theoretical  and 
specific  as  a  name  for  a  simple  particle  of  plasma,  which  may  have  nothing 
to  do  with  fermentation ;  and  we  think  that  such  rudimentary  particles 
ought  to  be  distinguished  by  name  from  those  which  have  assumed 
some  developed  form.     For  this  latter  reason,  therefore,  we  consider 
Nageli's    term,   ' Scbitzomycetes,'   even   still    more   objectionable,   since 
according  to  De  Bary,  who  adopts  it,  we  are   to  include  under  this 
designation  '  forms  of  extreme  minuteness,  as  yet  insufficiently  known  as 
regards  their  organization,  which  are  represented  by  the  generic  names, 
Vibrio,    Bacterium,   Zooglaa    (Cohn),   Nosema    (Nageli),    Sarcina,   &c.' 
('Morphologic  der  Pilze,'  Leipsig,  1866,  S.  3.) 

2  These   claims   and   views  have  been  carefully  considered   by  Dr. 
Burdon  Sanderson,  who  says,  in  the  before-mentioned  Report,  '  If  it  is 
true  that  our  common  cereals  are  infected  with  an  endophyte  which 
requires  only  certain  very  easily  combined  conditions  of  soil  and  tempe- 


286  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

In  spite  of  all  that  has  been  said  upon  the  subject, 
however,  no  success  has  yet  attended  the  attempt  to 
show  that  Bacteria  usually  derive  their  origin  from 
Fungi,  although  the  concurrent  testimony  of  many 
observers  tend  to  show  that  they  may,  after  undergoing 
various  developmental  phases,  grow  into  Fungi.  The 
actual  origin  of  the  plastide-particles  or  micrococci, 
therefore,  still  remains  an  open  question. 

What  I  have  said  concerning  the  appearance  of 
Torulte,  and  their  derivation  from  minute  particles, 
seems  to  apply  also  to  Sardna,  though  my  observations 
on  this  subject  are  less  complete  and  satisfactory.  I 
am  even  doubtful  as  to  whether  Sardna  is  really  a  living 
organism1.  It  was  originally  discovered  by  Prof.  Good- 
sir2,  in  fluid  vomited  by  a  patient  suffering  from  disease 
of  the  stomach.  Subsequently  it  has  been  discovered 
in  other  situations — in  urine  by  various  observers,  in 
the  lungs  by  Prof.  Virchow,  in  fluid  from  the  ven- 

rature  in  order  to  produce  nests  of  microzymes,  and  if  such  nests  are,  as 
Hallier  states,  to  be  found  in  all  contagious  liquids,  the  fact  can  hardly 
fail  to  have  a  certain  significance  in  its  bearing  on  the  etiology  of 
infective  diseases ;'  but  then  he  adds : — '  At  present  there  is  no  ground 
for  stating  either  the  one  or  the  other.  The  former  is  denied  by  all 
botanists,  the  latter  by  all  pathologists.' 

1  See  Appendix  A.,  pp.  ii — v. 

2  See  '  Edinb.  Med.   and  Surg.  Journal,'  vol.  Ivii.,   1842.     The  de- 
scription  then   given   was    as    follows  : — '  Sardna,   plants    coriaceous, 
transparent,  consisting  of  16  to  64  four-celled  square  frustules,  arranged 
parallel   to   one  another   in  a  square  transparent   matrix.     Species   i. 
Sardna  ventriculi  (mini),  Frustules  16,  colour  light  brown,  transparent 
matrix  very  perceptible  between  the  frustules,  less  so  around  the  edges  ; 
size  800  to  loooth  inch.     Hab.,  the  human  stomach.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  287 

tricles  of  the  brain  by  Sir  Wm.  Jenner,  in  a  gelatinous 
stratum  on  the  surface  of  old  bones  by  Mr.  Stephens, 
and  in  a  few  other  habitats1.  It  is  believed  by  the 
Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley  to  be  some  unusual  form  of  one  of 
our  common  moulds,  though  great  obscurity  is  acknow- 
ledged to  prevail  on  this  subject,  and  nothing  is  cer- 
tainly known  concerning  its  subsequent  morphological 


FIG.  21. 

Sarcina,  from  an  Ammonic  Tartrate  and  Sodic  Phosphate  Solution. 

condition,  or  from  what  organism  it  has  been  derived. 
Mr.  Berkeley  says2,  c  Every  attempt  to  make  it  ger- 
minate and  produce  its  proper  fruit  has  at  present 
failed.'  I  have  met  with  it  several  times  in  closed 
flasks  containing  ammonic  tartrate  and  sodic  phosphate, 
though  not  in  other  saline  solutions  with  which  I 
have  experimented.  It  appears  to  be  always  produced 
in  slightly  acid  fluids,  and  it  seems  very  probable  that 

1  For  further  particulars  on  this  subject,  see  Dr.  Tilbury  Fox's  '  Skin 
Diseases  of  Parasitic  Origin,'  pp.  152-163.     M.  Pasteur  ('Ann.de  Chim. 
et   de   Phys.,'    1862,  PL  n,  fig.  27,   K,   and   p.  80)   has   figured   and 
alludes   to   an   '  Algue  formee  de    cellules   quaternaires,  deposee   sous 
forme  de  precipitate,'  upon  the  walls  of  a  flask  which  had  contained 
'1'eau  de  levure  non  sucree,'  and  which,  if  not  Sarcina,  must  be  very 
closely  allied  thereto. 

2  '  British  Fungology,'  1860,  p.  69. 


288  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE  . 

the  presence  of  phosphates  or  of  phosphoric  acid  may 
be  also  necessary  for  the  development  of  this  product. 
The  specimens  found  in  urine  are  about  half  the  size 
of  those  which  occur  in  the  stomach ;  the  latter  also 
have  a  brownish  tint,  whilst  those  found  in  my  saline 
solutions1  have  been  cojourless  and  more  sharply  de- 
fined, though  very  variable  in  siz,e. 

I  have  still  to  refer  to  another  observation  throw- 
ing light  upon  the  mode  of  origin  of  what  appeared 
to  be  distinct,  double-contoured,  Fungus-cells,  of  a  kind 
concerning  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say  here- 
after. These  again  seemed  to  originate  from  minute 
particles,  which,  a  short  time  previously,  had  not  been 
visible  in  the  fluid.  The  observation  now  to  be 
recorded  is  interesting  also  in  other  respects,  and  is 
sufficiently  suggestive  as  to  the  possible  influence  of 
electrical  conditions  in  promoting  evolutional,  or  de- 
velopmental changes. 

Referring  to  notes  made  at  the  time,  I  extract  the 
following  particulars: — About  eleven  P.M.  on  the  i4th 
of  June  a  small  quantity  of  ordinary  ammonic  sesqui- 
carbonate  was  dissolved  in  some  apparently  pure  (though 
not  distilled)  water,  in  a  watch-glass.  After  solution, 
and  in  about  an  hour's  time,  the  fluid  was  carefully 
examined  with  different  microscopic  powers,  and  lastly 

1  They  are  not  to  be  obtained  at  will.  I  have  met  with  them  about 
eight  or  nine  times,  but  have  very  frequently  failed  to  produce  them. 
I  have,  however,  never  found  well  marked  specimens  except  in  a  solution 
which  contained  ammonia  and  a  phosphate. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  289 

the  bottom  of  the  watch-glass  was  scrutinised  in  very 
many  situations  with  an  immersion  Ty  objective.  No 
living  thing  of  any  kind  was  seen,  though  scattered 
over  the  bottom  of  the  glass  were  a  large  number  of 
tiny  crystals,  some  larger  and  some  smaller  than  ^^" 
in  diameter.  Under  the  polariscope  they  gave  the 
most  beautiful  and  varied  colour  reactions.  The  watch- 
glass  was  then  placed  on  a  mantel-piece  with  a  soft 
surface  (covered  with  velvet),  a  wine-glass,  with  its 
stem  broken  off,  was  inverted  over  it,  and  this  again 
was  covered  by  a  tumbler,  in  order,  as  much  as 
possible,  to  prevent  evaporation  and  keep  out  dust. 
After  twenty-four  hours  the  bottom  of  the  watch-glass 
was  again  carefully  examined  with  the  T|-''  object-glass, 
and  no  change  was  observable.  There  were  the  same 
minute  crystals — perhaps  rather  more  numerous  than 
before — but  no  recognisable  specks  of  protoplasm  or 
other  trace  of  living  things.  The  watch-glass  was  then 
replaced  as  before.  The  next  day  (June  i6th)  the  weather 
was  hot  and  extremely  sultry.  The  temperature  was 
about  85°  F.  in  the  shade,  and  a  thunder-storm, 
which  seemed  imminent  during  the  whole  of  the  day, 
began  about  7  p.  M.,  and  continued  till  the  early 
hours  of  the  morning  of  the  following  day.  At  about 
11.30  P.M.  of  this  1 6th  of  June,  I  again  examined  the 
solution  in  the  watch-glass — forty-eight  hours  after  it 
had  been  prepared.  Then,  what  appeared  to  be  Fur/gus- 
spores  were  seen  in  all  stages  of  development,  scattered 
over  the  whole  of  the  bottom  of  the  glass,  and 

u 


2 po  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

intermixed  with  the  small  crystals.  They  were  quite 
motionless,  and  mostly  separate,  rather  than  in  distinct 
groups.  They  varied  in  size  from  the  minutest  visible 
speck,  to  a  spherical  nucleated  body  ^Vtr"  in  diameter. 
No  moving  particles  or  Bacteria,  were  seen.  Probably 

ft  OL  a 

•     o     O     O     O      O     ©       0       &i        £&\       (Jb\ 

^=^         6         x«3rv 


FIG.  22. 

Different  Developmental  Stages  of  Spores  (?)  found  in  an  Ammonic 
Carbonate  solution.     (  x  800.) 

more  than  a  thousand  of  these  bodies  were  developing 
in  the  one  watch-glass — each  growing  in  its  own  place, 
and  showing  no  evidence  of  multiplication  by  division 
or   pullulation.     In   those  whose   dimensions   did  not 
exceed  T^oV'  *n  diameter,    no    nucleus  was   visible,    ; 
though  the  larger  of  them  displayed  a  distinctly  vesicular 
appearance.     As  these  spores  or  spore-like  bodies  in- 
creased in  size,  the  thick  wall  became  more  and  more   | 
manifest — though  it  had  a  rather  rough,  granular  ap- 
pearance— and  a  nucleus  gradually  showed  itself  within,  I 
which  was  also  granular1.     The  next  morning,  after   * 

1  This  appearance  I  had  not  unfrequently  seen  before,  where  spores 
resembling  these  bodies  had  been  developing  in  saline  solutions,  and  it 
had  always  strongly  suggested  the  notion  to  me  that  such  spores  were 
formed  by  an  actual  coalescence  of  granules  and  particles.  Here, 
however,  there  were  no  granules  or  moving  particles  present ;  the  spore-  » 
like  bodies  were  the  only  possibly  living  things,  and  it  seemed  quite 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  291 

twelve  hours,  the  spares  (?)  seemed  to  be  much  in  the 
same  condition,  though  numerous  small  colonies  (30  to 
50  in  each)  of  motionless  'Bacteria  were  now  visible. 
During  the  day  the  air  was  clear,  and  the  temperature 
lower  (76°  F.) ;  and  after  twelve  hours  more  (in  the 
evening)  the  Bacteria  were  found  to  have  considerably 
increased  in  number,  and  several  of  the  spore-like 
bodies  were  in  a  more  developed  condition — their  thick 
walls  being  wholly  or  partially  consolidated,  and  the 
nucleus  also  more  distinctly  defined.  In  this  condition 
they  perfectly  resembled  the  undoubtedly  living  spores 
which  have  been  found,  either  alone  or  in  connection 
with  mycelial  filaments  to  which  they  have  given  rise, 
in  many  ammoniacal  solutions.  The  great  majority  of 
the  spore-like  bodies  in  the  watch-glass  were,  however, 
still  in  the  granular  condition — they  seemed  to  have 
made  no  advance  whatever.  On  the  following  day  they 
were  not  quite  so  distinct — some  of  them  seemed  to 
be  disintegrating,  whilst  none  had  undergone  any 
further  development.  The  Bacteria,  on  the  contrary, 
had  decidedly  increased  in  quantity.  After  two  days 
more,  minute  Torula  cells  began  to  appear.  These  did 
not  rapidly  multiply,  as  on  other  occasions,  but  soon 

certain  that  they  could  not  have  originated  after  this  fashion.  They 
obviously  commenced  as  minute  specks,  and  the  granular  appear- 
ance manifested  itself  as  long  as  the  spore-like  bodies  were  still 
increasing  in  size.  When  growth  stopped,  consolidation  began  to 
take  place,  and  an  even,  double-contoured  wall  soon  replaced  that 
which  was  before  irregular  and  granular.  (Compare  with  those  in 
Figs.  29  and  39.) 

U  2 


292  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

began  to  develop  into  mycelial  filaments.  I.e.  the  growth 
of  each  was  continuous  rather  than  discontinuous. 

The  thick- walled  spores — if  such  was  their  real; 
nature — had  either  developed  or  come  into  existence, 
under  the  influence  of  the  high  temperature  and  the 
disturbed  electrical  condition  of  the  atmosphere 1.  And 
whatever  their  nature,  they  seemed  to  be  so  much  the 
creatures  of  these  conditions  as  to  be  unable  to  survive 
under  those  which  followed. 

It  seems  certain,  at  all  events,  that  these  bodies  re- 
sembling Fungus-spores  originated  separately  in  different 
parts  of  the  solution.  And  neither  have  the  real  spores 
which  they  resemble  been  observed  to  multiply  either 
by  fission  or  gemmation :  they  have  not  even  been 
found  aggregated  together  in  a  fashion  which  would 
suggest  the  probability  of  this  method  of  multiplica- 
tion. The  real  spores  have  likewise  been  seen  in 
gradually  diminishing  sizes,  down  to  the  smallest 
visible  specks. 

What,  then,  is  the  origin  of  the  plastide-particles 
which  develop  into  Bacteria,  Torulte,  or  other  low  forms 
of  life  that  so  soon  swarm  in  infusions  of  animal  or 
vegetable  substances,  and  in  certain  saline  or  ammo- 
niacal  solutions  ?  Do  they  owe  their  origin  to  the 
multiplication  of  germs  pre-existing  in  the  air,  the 

1  We  may,  perhaps,  connect  this  possibility  with  the  well-known  fact 
that  milk,  beer,  and  other  fluids  are  so  very  prone  to  turn  sour  during  a 
thunder-storm,  or  whilst  it  is  threatening. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  293 

water,  or  the  substance  infused?  or  have  they  been 
produced  de  novo,  and  without  the  agency  of  germs  ? 
These  are  the  questions  which  most  urgently  press  for 
solution.  Can  Archebiosis  still  take  place,  or  does  all 
Life  proceed  from  pre-existing  Life  ? 

I  think  it  will  be  at  once  recognised,  that  it 
would  be  altogether  useless  to  search  in  the  air  for  the 
germs  of  plastide-particles,  or  of  Bacteria.  Even  M. 
Pasteur  himself  admits  this.  Speaking  of  the  germs  of 
the  Bacterium,  c  which  shows  itself  in  all  sorts  of  in- 
fusions, and  which  almost  always  appears  before  the 
other  Infusoria,'  he  says  (Annal.  de  Chimie  et  de 
Physique,  1862,  p.  56): — c  This  Infusorium  is  so  small, 
that  ont  could  not  distinguish  its  germ,  and  still  less 
affirm  the  presence  of  such  germ,  if  it  were  known, 
amongst  the  organised  corpuscles  belonging  to  the  dust 
in  suspension  in  the  atmosphere/ 

No  investigations  as  to  what  the  air  does  or  does  not 
contain  can,  therefore,  throw  much  direct  light  upon  this 
question  as  to  the  mode  of  origin  of  Bacteria.  Seeing 
that  the  champion  of  the  Panspermatists  admits  this, 
we  may  for  the  present  completely  disregard  this  aspect 
of  the  question,  merely  pointing  out  that  probably  more 
than  nine-tenths  of  the  discussion  and  experimentation 
which  has  taken  place  upon  the  question  of  the  exist- 
ence or  non-existence  of  c  germs '  in  the  air  has  been 
almost  wholly  irrelevant,  and  without  value  for  the 
settlement  of  the  main  question  at  issue  (see  p.  297). 

We  must,  then,  have  recourse  to  a  microscopical 


294  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

examination  of  the  solutions  themselves  in  which  the 
plastide-particles,  and  the  Bacteria  or  Torul*,  appear. 
The  mode  in  which  they  make  their  appearance  was 
first  studied  by  Mantegazza1,  though  others  have  sub- 
sequently made  similar  observations.  I  have  frequently 
watched  their  appearance,  during  warm  weather,  in 
portions  of  organic  solutions  hermetically  sealed  in 
small  glass  tubes,  or,  more  advantageously  still,  in  thin 
films  of  fluid  beneath  a  covering  glass,  after  it  had  been 
cemented2  to  the  glass  slip,  or  after  the  fluid  had  been 
otherwise  prevented  from  undergoing  rapid  evaporation. 
If  a  drop  of  a  very  strong  infusion  of  turnip3  be 
taken  (after  it  has  been  filtered  five  or  six  times 
through  the  finest  filtering  paper),  and  mounted  in  the 

1  Professor  Mantegazza  first  watched  the  appearance  of  Bacteria  in 
a  solution  containing  some  fragments  of  vegetable  tissue,  enclosed  in  a 
hermetically-sealed   glass   tube.       On   this   occasion   he   watched    the 
solution  assiduously  for  sixteen  consecutive  hours.     At  the  expiration 
of  two  hours,  he  saw  the  first  particles  appear  in  the  solution,  at  first 
simply  exhibiting  a  slow,  oscillating  movement,  but,  after  a  time,  darting 
about  with  the  rapid   movements  by  which   active  Bacteria  are  cha- 
racterized.   Their  number  increased  imperceptibly,  till,  at  the  end  of  ten 
hours,  the  liquid  had  become  quite  cloudy.    (See  '  Giornal.  dell.  R.  Isti- 
tuto  Lombardo,'  t.  iii.  1851.) 

2  Taking  care  to  employ  a  cement  which  has  been  previously  ascer- 
tained not  to  be  hurtful  to  Bacteria,  and  to  leave  a  minute  aperture  at  the 
circumference  of  the  glass  uncovered  by  the  cement.     Or  a  drop  of  the 
fluid  to  be  examined  may  be  placed  in  an  ordinary  animalcule  cage,  and 
the  cover  then  pressed  down  so  as  to  flatten  the  drop  into  a  thin  film. 

8  This  I  have  found  to  answer  best.  The  water  of  the  infusion  should 
not  at  any  time  be  hotter  than  about  35°  F.  Sometimes  the  appearance 
of  Bacteria  has  been  hastened  by  neutralizing  the  natural  acidity  of  the 
infusion  by  liquid  potassse. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  295 

manner  above  mentioned,  it  is  not  difficult — with  the 
stage  of  the  microscope  in  a  horizontal  position — 
to  bring  into  the  field  of  view  a  portion  of  the  film, 
which  either  contains  no  visible1  particles,  or  only 
a  small  number,  such  as  can  be  easily  counted.  With 
the  slip  resting  on  one  of  Strieker's  hot-water  plates 
maintained  at  a  temperature  of  85°-95°  F.,  it  may  be 
found  that,  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  hours,  faint 
and  ill-defined  whitish  specks,  less  than  5-0  J00"  in 
diameter,  make  their  appearance  pretty  evenly  dispersed 
throughout  the  field  of  view.  These  are  at  first  almost 
motionless — exhibiting  only  the  merest  vibrations,  but 
no  progressive  movements.  They  gradually  become 
more  distinct,  assume  a  sharper  outline,  and  after 
a  variable  time  some  of  them  develop  into  distinct 
'Bacteria 2.  At  first  they  exhibit  gentle  oscillations  and 
tremblings  only,  though  gradually  they  display  the  more 
characteristic  darting  movements.  The  study  of  the 
mode  of  origin  of  these  primordial  living  forms  is,  in- 
deed, facilitated  and  rendered  much  more  certain  by  the 
fact  that  they  remain  comparatively  motionless  for  a 
long  time  after  their  first  appearance,  and  also  continue 
faint  and  much  less  refractive  than  when  in  the  more 
mature  condition.  Hence  it  becomes  a  matter  of  the 

1  Working  with  a  magnifying  power  of  1000  diameters. 

2  The  shortest  time  in  which  I  have  seen  Bacteria  develop  in  such 
a  film  has  been  one  hour  and  a  half.     More  frequently,  however,  three 
hours  have  elapsed,  and  sometimes  longer  still,  before  distinct  Bacteria 
have  made  their  appearance  in  the  field  of  view. 


296  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

greatest  ease  to  watch  their  appearance  in  thin  films  of 
fluid,  and  also  to  distinguish  them  from  other  extraneous 
particles  with  which  they  may  coexist. 

But  if,  in  a  motionless  film  of  fluid,  multitudes  of 
living  particles  subsequently  appear,  which  are  them- 
selves almost  motionless,  how  can  we  account  for 
their  origin?  Three  hypotheses  present  themselves. 
It  may  be  said  (a)  that  they  have  arisen  through  the 
reproductive  multiplication  of  one  or  more  germs  or 
organisms  in  the  film  of  fluid  which,  though  visible^ 
had  escaped  observation.  The  difficulties  standing  in 
the  way  of  our  acceptance  of  this  explanation  are  these. 
The  film  is  motionless,  and  also  those  first  appearing 
particles  which  gradually  come  into  view  in  portions 
of  it  where  no  such  particles  had  been  previously 
visible.  No  multiplication  by  fission  or  other  means 
can  actually  be  observed  to  take  place  by  microscopists 
among  the  mere  particles  in  question,  though  this  ought 
to  be  easily  observable  if  it  really  occurred  at  the  rate 
postulated.  And  lastly,  if  the  subsequent  large  numbers 
are  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  occurrence  of  a  repro- 
ductive process  taking  place  amongst  a  few  visible  but 
unobserved  germs,  these  products  of  fission,  being  mo- 
tionless, ought  to  be  aggregated  here  .and  there  only1, 
whilst  as  a  matter  of  fact,  no  such  arrangement  exists— 
there  is  rather  a  uniform  diffusion  of  the  particles.  These 

1  This  does  actually  take  place  in  the  appearance  of  Torula  cells  in  a 
watch-glass  (p.  281),  because,  being  also  motionless,  they  do  undergo  a 
rapid  process  of  subdivision,  even  whilst  they  are  of  a  very  minute  size. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  297 

various  difficulties  appearing  fatal  to  this  explanation 
of  the  mode  of  origin  of  the  multitudes  of  plastide- 
particles  and  Bacteria,  we  are  left  with  only  two  other 
possible  modes  of  origin: — either  (b)  they  have  been 
developed  from  a  multitude  of  pretty  evenly  dissemi- 
nated invisible  germs,  or  (c)  they  have  been  produced 
de  novo  in  the  fluid  by  a  process  of  Archebiosis. 

Thus  the  solution  of  this  great  problem  passes  beyond 
the  reach  of  actual  demonstration.  Microscopical 
evidence  enables  us  to  bring  it  to  this  stage  now,  and 
it  may  perhaps  never  enable  us  to  do  more.  It  reduces 
us  to  a  consideration  of  two  rival  hypotheses,  and  to  a 
careful  consideration  of  whatever  evidence  may  be 
forthcoming  to  influence  us  in  our  choice  between  these 
two  possible  explanations.  Nothing  that  can  be  said 
about  the  abundance  of  recognisable  atmospheric  germs 
can  directly  affect  the  solution  of  this  problem.  It 
is  one  which,  if  it  has  to  do  with  germs  at  all,  has  to 
do  with  invisible  germs.  But  invisible  germs  can  have 
only  a  hypothetical  existence,  and  even  to  this  they  can 
lay  no  claim,  unless  observed  phenomena  cannot  be 
explained  without  such  postulation.  We  must  not 
forget  the  old  and  well-approved  logical  rule, — 

'  Entia  non  sunt  multiplicanda  praeter  necessitatem.' 

The  claw  of  parsimony'  may  well  be  quoted  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  would  ruthlessly  people  the  atmo- 
sphere with  such  countless  myriads  of  c  entities1.' 

1  Some  of  those  who  are  so  eager  to  demonstrate  the  prevalence  of 
'  germs,'  are  frequently  carried  away,  by  their  enthusiasm,  beyond  the 


298  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

The  problem  which  is  now  presented,  concerning  the 
origin  of  these  low  organisms,  so  precisely  resembles 
that  which  has  had  to  be  settled  in  the  case  of  some 
crystals1,  that  it  may  be  well  to  elucidate  our  subject  by 
this  analogy.  It  will  be  necessary,  however,  in  com- 
paring the  two  problems,  that  the  reader  should  look  at 
trie  evidence  only,  with  a  mind  as  free  as  possible  from 
the  warping  influence  of  preconceptions. 

Crystals  are  statical  aggregations,  whilst  organisms 
are  dynamical  aggregations2,  which,  from  the  evolu- 


bounds  of  strict  logic.  It  suffices  to  show  by  the  agency  of  the  electric 
light  or  by  some  other  means,  that  air  and  water  contain  myriads  of  infi- 
nitesimally  small  particles,  some  of  which  are  organic  in  nature,  in  order 
that  they  may  at  once  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  organic  particles 
are(  germs.  But,  seeing  the  countless  forms  of  life  which  exist  upon  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  how  these  are  from  moment  to  moment,  during 
life  as  well  as  after  death,  undergoing  a  molecular  disintegration,  it 
would  be  strange  indeed  if  the  atmosphere,  and  water  which  has  been 
exposed  to  it,  did  not  contain  multitudes  of  organic  particles,  both  large 
and  small.  The  great  majority  of  such  mere  organic  particles,  however, 
could  have  no  reasonable  title  to  be  called  germs. 

1  The  analogy  between  the  two  problems,  as  to  the  possible  origin 
of  some  crystals  and  organisms  de  novo  in  solutions,  has  been  rendered 
much  more  obvious  since  the  discovery  by  the  late  Professor  Graham, 
that,  when  dissolved,  the  saline  substance  does  not  remain  as  such  in 
solution — but   that   the  acid   and   the   base   exist   separately,  and  are 
separable  by  a  process  of  dialysis.    When  crystallisation  occurs,  there- 
fore, we  have  a  combination  of  molecules  taking  place  similar  to,  though 
simpler  than,  what  may  be  presumed  to  take  place  in  the  genesis  of  a 
speck  of  living  matter. 

2  This  difference  between  crystals  and  organisms,  which  are  in  other 
respects  strictly  comparable  with  one  another,  was  clearly  pointed  out 
by  Burdach.     In  both   cases,  he  says,  "  La  tendance   int^rieure  a  la 
configuration  existe  avant  sa  manifestation.  .  .  .  Mais  dans  le  cristal, 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  299 

tionist's  point  of  view,  are  supposed  to  take  origin  from 
the  recompositions  occurring  amongst  colloidal  mole- 
cules. Colloids  possess  so  strong  an  inherent  tendency 
to  undergo  change,  that  they  were  said  by  Professor 
Graham  to  be  endowed  with  properties  which  form 
the  basis  of  those  manifested  by  living  things.  Matter 
when  it  passes  into  the  crystalline  condition  exhibits 
properties  of  a  certain  kind;  and  when*  it  passes  into 
the  living  condition  it  exhibits  properties  of  another 
kind,  to  which  we  commonly  apply  the  term  c  vital.' 
Now  the  question  in  each  case  is,  whether  by  mere 
concurrence  of  certain  physical  conditions,  aiding 
and  abetting  the  inherent  properties  of  the  matter 
itself,  some  kinds  of  matter  can  fall  into  modes  of 
combination  called  crystalline^  whilst  other  kinds  are 
capable  of  falling  into  modes  of  combination  called 
living ;  or  whether,  in  each  case,  a  pre-existing  cgerm' 
of  the  particular  kind  of  matter  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
determine,  in  suitable  media,  either  of  these  modes  of 
combination.  Are  we  to  believe  that  crystals  can 
appear  in  no  solution  whatsoever  without  the  pre- 

1'activite'  e'e"teint  a  moment  meme  ou  il  se  produit ;  il  ne  conserve 
ensuite  sa  forme  comme  le  caillot,  que  par  sa  seule  cohesion,  par  1'en- 
chainement  chimique  de  ses  Elements,  et  il  ne  manifeste  plus  aucune 
activite,  tant  que  de  nouvelles  causes  ne  viennent  point  deranger  1'equi- 
libre.  Le  corps  organise  au  contraire,  se  maintient  par  une  production 
incessante,  par  la  continuite  des  mouvements  plastiques,  par  la  perma- 
nence de  1'antagonisme  de  forces  qui  lui  a  donn^  naissance.  La  per- 
ennite  ou  la  persistance  de  1'activite  nous  apparait  done  comme 
caractere  de  la  vie."—  Traite  de  Physiologic,  translated  by  Jourdan, 
1839,  t.  iv.  p.  129. 


300  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

existence  in  that  solution  of  certain  crystalline  germs; 
and  similarly  that  living  things  can  arise  in  no  solution 
whatsoever  without  the  pre-existence  in  such  solution 
of  living  germs?  The  very  mention  of  this  question 
in  connection  with  the  origin  of  crystals  may  seem  to 
some  people  to  be  quite  absurd,  because  they  have 
always  been  in  the  habit  of  believing  that  crystals 
could,  and  do,  habitually  come  into  being  de  novo,  with- 
out the  agency  of  pre-existing  crystals.  But  in  spite  of 
the  fact,  that  the  majority  of  people  are  quite  content 
to  believe  that  crystals  originate  in  obedience  to  purely 
physical  conditions,  and  independently  of  pre-existing 
c  crystalline  force ;'  still,  facts  somewhat  similar  to  those 
which  are  to  be  met  with  in  connection  with  the  sister 
problem,  have  induced  some  chemists  seriously  to  ques- 
tion the  possibility  of  the  de  novo  origination  of  crystals 
in  some  supersaturated  solutions.  In  support  of  this 
statement,  I  need  only  quote  the  following  passage  from 
Watts's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry l : — c  This  sudden  crystal- 
lisation, if  not  produced  by  cold,  appears  to  depend 
essentially  on  contact  of  the  solution  with  small,  solid, 
perhaps  crystalline  particles ;  for  it  is  not  produced  by 
passing  air  previously  purified  by  oil  of  vitriol  through 
the  solution,  or  by  agitation  with  a  glass  rod  previously 
purified  from  dust  by  ignition.  According  to  Vlolette 
and  De  Gernez^  the  sudden  crystallisation  is  in  all  cases 
induced  only  by  contact  'with  a  crystal  of  the  same  salt, 
possessing  the  same  form  and  degree  of  hydration  as 

1  Vol.  v.  p.  349. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  301 

the  crystals,  which  separate  out ;  and  in  the  case  of 
those  supersaturated  solutions  which  crystallise  suddenly 
on  exposure  to  the  air,  it  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
minute  particles  of  that  salt  floating  in  the  air.  From 
an  experiment  of  De  Gernez  it  appears  that  micro- 
scopic crystals  of  sodic  sulphate  may  be  obtained  by 
passing  air,  even  in  the  open  country,  through  pure 
water,  and  evaporating  the  water  on  a  glass  plate. 
Jeannel,  however,  denies  the  necessity  of  contact  with 
the  salt  actually  contained  in  the  solution.  He  finds, 
indeed,  that  a  supersaturated  solution  of  sodic  acetate 
may  be  made  to  crystallise  by  contact  with  any  solid 
substance  (a  piece  of  paper,  for  example),  and  a  solution 
of  sodic  tartrate  by  contact  with  a  clean,  dry,  glass 
rod.'  Here,  then,  we  have  a  veritable  c  germ '  contro- 
versy referrible  to  crystals.  I  have  been  informed, 
however,  by  Prof.  Frankland,  that  even  in  the  case  of 
sodic  sulphate  it  has  been  shown  that,  under  certain  con- 
ditions^ crystallisation  can  take  place  where  no  crystal- 
line germ  could  possibly  have  existed. 

The  cgerm'  theory  of  the  origin  of  crystals  in 
supersaturated  solutions  has,  therefore,  not  only  been 
in  existence,  but  has  been  overthrown;  This  has  been 
possible,  however,  only  because  it  has  been  more  easy 
to  show  that  a  given  set  of  conditions  are  inimical  to 
the  existence  of  a  crystal,  than  it  has  yet  been  to  induce 
people  to  believe  that  any  given  set  of  suitable  experi- 
mental conditions  are  incompatible  with  the  existence 
of  matter  in  the  living  state. 


302  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however,  that  the  germ  con- 
troversy concerning  crystals  can  only  be  settled  in  the 
minds  of  those  who  are  content  to  accept  the  high 
probability  that  the  properties  of  any  invisible  portions 
of  crystalline  matter  would  correspond  with  the  proper- 
ties which  similar  visible  crystalline  matter  is  known 
to  display.  And  it  is  this  reluctance  to  admit  an 
equally  high  probability  in  the  case  of  living  matter, 
which  alone  causes  the  sister  controversy  to  continue. 
Otherwise,  the  question  as  to  the  possibility  of  the  de 
now  origination  of  organisms  would  have  been  amicably 
settled  long  ago. 

So  far  as  evidence  derived  from  microscopical  exami- 
nation can  be  adduced,  moreover,  it  is  able  to  speak 
no  more  decisively  concerning  the  de  novo  origin  of 
crystals,  than  concerning  the  de  novo  origin  of  or- 
ganisms. In  the  elucidation  of  this  point  the  valuable, 
though  insufficiently  known,  observations  of  Mr.  Rainey * 
come  most  opportunely  to  our  aid.  In  ordinary  cases, 
it  is  difficult  to  watch  satisfactorily  with  the  microscope 
the  first  stage  in  the  appearance  of  crystals  in  solutions 
containing  crystallizable  matter,  owing  to  the  rapidity 
with  which  their  growth  takes  place.  This  is  one 
point  in  which  crystals  are  strikingly  different  from 
organisms.  The  slower  growth  of  organisms  is,  how- 
ever, as  Prof.  Graham  pointed  out,  quite  in  accordance 
with  the  general  slowness  of  colloidal  changes.  But, 

1  '  On  the  Mode  of  Formation  of  the  Shell  of  Animals,'  &c.     London, 
1858. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  303 

since  Mr.  Rainey's  discovery  that  crystals  are  produced 
much  more  slowly,  and  undergo  very  important  modi- 
fications in  shape,  when  they  are  formed  in  viscid 
solutions,  the  formation  of  these  bodies  has,  in  both 
respects,  become  much  more  obviously  comparable  with 
that  of  organisms.  The  appearance  of  these  modified 
crystals  may  be  best  watched  after  mixing  solutions 
of  gum  and  carbonate  of  potash  in  the  manner  which 
has  been  carefully  described  by  Mr.  Rainey.  Owing 
to  the  viscid  properties  of  gum,  a  solution  of  this  sub- 
stance diffuses  with  difficulty,  and  hence,  when  brought 
into  contact  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash,  the 
malate  of  lime  of  the  gum  only  decomposes  very  slowly. 
The  insoluble  carbonate  of  lime,  instead  of  appearing  in 
its  usual  crystalline  condition,  is  precipitated  in  the  form 
of  globules  resembling  calculi.  Mr.  Rainey  thus  describes 
what  takes  place  when  portions  of  the  two  solutions 
are  mixed  under  the  microscope: — cThe  appearance 
which  is  first  visible  is  a  faint  nebulosity  at  the  line  of 
union  of  the  two  solutions,  showing  that  the  particles 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  when  they  first  come  into  existence, 
are  too  minute  to  admit  of  being  distinguished  indivi- 
dually by  high  microscopic  powers1.  In  a  few  hours 
exquisitely  minute  spherules,  too  small  to  allow  of 
accurate  measurement,  can  be  seen  in  the  nebulous 
part,  a  portion  of  which  has  disappeared,  and  is  replaced 
by  these  spherical  particles.  Examined  at  a  later  period, 

1  Mr.  Rainey  generally  made  use  of  one  of  Ross's  ±"  object-glasses. 


304  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

dumb-bell-like  bodies  will  have  made  their  appearance, 
and  with  them  elliptical  particles  of  different  degrees 
of  excentricity.'  (p.  9.)  These  modified  crystals  are, 
therefore,  not  produced  more  rapidly  than  the  lowest 
living  things  appear  to  be  in  other  solutions  during 
hot  weather.  The  shapes  of  the  products  in  the  two 
cases,  judging  from  Mr.  Rainey's  figures,  are  also 
remarkably  similar.  (See  vol.  ii.  Fig.  41.) 

Thus,  then,  the  problem  concerning  the  primordial 
formation  of  crystals  and  of  living  things  is  essentially 
similar  in  kind.  Any  difference  in  degree  between  our 
present  knowledge  on  these  two  subjects  must  not  blind 
us  as  to  their  similarity  in  nature.  Plastide-particles 
and  ^Bacteria,  are  produced  as  constantly  in  solutions  of 
colloidal  matter  as  crystals  are  produced  in  solutions 
containing  crystallizable  matter.  Crystallizable  sub- 
stances are  definite  in  composition,  and  give  rise  to  de- 
finite statical  aggregations  j  whilst  colloidal  substances, 
much  more  complex  and  unstable,  give  rise  on  the 
contrary  to  dynamical  aggregations.  These  dynamical 
aggregations,  though  they  may  at  first  make  their  ap- 
pearance in  the  form  of  plastide-particles  and  Bacteria, 
are,  by  virtue  of  the  properties  of  their  constituent 
molecules,  endowed  with  the  potentiality  of  undergoing 
the  most  various  changes  in  accordance  with  the 
different  sets  of  influences  to  which  they  are  submitted. 
Respecting  the  origin  of  the  first  visible  forms  which 
appear  in  either  kind  of  solution,  the  evidence  which 
we  possess  is  precisely  similar  in  nature.  If  such 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  305 

microscopical  evidence  does  not  enable  us  to  get  rid  of 
the  doubt  that  the  smallest  visible  specks  of  living 
matter  may  have  originated  from  invisible  c germs'  of 
such  organisms,  neither  does  it  any  more  enable  us  to 
dispense  with  the  supposition  that  the  smallest  visible 
crystals  may  have  originated  from  pre-existing  invisible 
c  germs '  of  crystals.  The  very  existence  of  the  one 
set  of  invisible  c  germs 'is,  in  fact,  just  as  hypothetical 
as  the  existence  of  the  other.  Plastide-particles  and 
Bacteria  we  do  know ;  but  concerning  the  existence  of 
invisible  c  germs/  of  these  we  know  just  as  little  as 
we  do  concerning  the  existence  of  invisible  ( germs ' 
of  crystals. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE   LIMITS    OF    'VITAL   RESISTANCE*    TO    HEAT. 

Conflicting  analogies  bearing  on  the  question  of  the  Origin  of  Life. 
Views  on  this  subject  likely  to  be  influenced  by  wider  philosophical 
beliefs.  Physical  theories  of  Life  quite  harmonious  with  possibility 
of  de  novo  origin.  Both  crystalline  and  living  matter  may  be 
.  supposed  to  originate  by  same  laws  as  determine  their  growth. 
Whether  this  does  occur  with  living  matter  has  to  be  determined 
by  experiment.  Only  one  mode  of  solving  the  problem.  Import- 
ance of  ascertaining  limits  of  '  vital  resistance '  to  Heat.  Previously- 
existing  evidence  on  this  subject.  Limits  in  dry  air,  and  limits  in 
water.  General  unanimity  as  to  destructive  influence  of  boiling 
water.  Observations  of  Pouchet,  Meunier,  Wyman,  and  Liebig 
upon  the  effect  of  lower  temperatures.  Brownian  and  languid  vital 
movements.  Their  significance  and  meaning.  Occurrence  of  re- 
production the  surest  test  that  Bacteria  are  living.  New  experiments 
with  inoculated  ammoniacal  solutions.  Show  that  Bacteria,  Torulae, 
and  their  germs  are  killed  in  fluids  which  have  been  raised  to 
140°  F.  Or  by  lower  temperatures,  if  exposure  last  longer.  Crucial 
nature  of  experiments.  Almost  similar  results  with  slightly  higher 
organisms.  Experiments  of  Schwann.  Value  of  single,  properly- 
conducted  experiment  with  positive  result.  These  obtained  by 
Schwann  himself,  and  by  Pouchet,  Mantegazza,  Wyman,  and  others. 
Also  by  M.  Pasteur.  Unfair  way  in  which  the  latter  argues  on  this 
subject.  Limits  of  '  vital  resistance '  said  to  be  higher  in  neutral 
or  alkaline  than  in  acid  solutions.  M.  Pasteur's  conclusions  and 
assumptions. 

SCIENTIFIC  men  are  content  to  believe  that  crystals 
may   originate    without    the   aid    of    pre-existing 
crystalline  matter,  and  it  will  remain  for  us,  in  sub- 
sequent chapters,  to  show  how    far  existing  evidence 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  307 

points  towards  a  similar  probability  in  the  case  of 
organisms.  There  is,  however,  an  obvious  and  fun- 
damental difference  between  crystals  and  organisms, 
which  has  had  an  immense  and  quite  natural  influence 
in  affecting  the  opinions  entertained  as  to  the  mode 
of  origin  of  each.  Crystals  do  not  undergo  a  process 
of  c  spontaneous  division,'  and  reproduction  is  unknown 
amongst  them.  How  else  could  they  arise,  then,  save 
by  a  'spontaneous'  collocation  of  their  atoms ?  With 
organisms  and  with  living  matter,  however,  the  case  is 
wholly  different.  These  are  dynamical  aggregates,  and 
the  possession  of  a  property  of  reproduction  is  their 
fundamental  characteristic.  All  the  higher  forms  with 
which  we  are  most  familiar  do  undoubtedly  derive  their 
origin  from  organisms  similar  to  themselves.  Why 
then  should  the  processes  with  which  we  are  so  familiar 
in  the  many  not  be  applicable  to  all  ?  Why  should  we 
not  implicitly  believe  that  the  phrase  omne  vivum  ex 
vivo  gives  accurate  expression  to  the  law  of  nature  ? 
An  analogical  argument  of  so  striking  a  nature  could 
not  fail  to  arrest  and  enchain  the  attention  of  those 
who,  for  other  reasons,  might  believe  or  wish  that  the 
dogma  were  true — notwithstanding  the  fact  that  another 
analogical  argument  speaks  almost  as  strongly  in  favour 
of  the  possibility  of  the  de  novo  origination  of  some 
organisms  as  specks  of  living  matter. 

General  beliefs  will,  then,  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  subject,  and  the  views  entertained  upon  this  pro- 
blem, as  to  the  mode  of  origin  of  some  organisms, 

X  2 


308  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

will  inevitably  be  influenced  by  the  current  doctrines 
entertained  concerning  c  Life' — just  as  these  notions,  in 
their  turn,  are  held  in  subjection  to,  and  are  made  to 
harmonize  with,  higher  philosophical  or  religious  beliefs. 
The  influence  of  such  general  considerations  is  im- 
mense, and  they  are  only  too  apt,  even  unconsciously, 
to  warp  the  judgments  of  many  of  us  in  our  attempts 
to  interpret  facts.  Then,  too,  living  things  manifest 
such  complex  properties  that  the  whole  notion  of  Life 
has  been  shrouded  in  mystery.  Biologists  at  first  could 
not  bring  themselves  to  believe — some  cannot  do  so 
now — that  the  phenomena  which  living  things  manifest 
are  absolutely  dependent  upon  the  properties  of  the 
variously  organised  matter  entering  into  their  com- 
position. They  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  some 
metaphysical  entity — some  canima,'  carchseus,3  or  cvital 
principle' — under  whose  directing  influence  the  living 
form  was  supposed  to  be  built  up,  and  upon  whose 
persisting  influence  many  of  the  phenomena  of  Life 
were  thought  to  depend.  The  aid  of  no  similar  meta- 
physical principle'  has,  however,  been  deemed  necessary 
in  order  to  account  for  crystalline  structures  and  pro- 
perties. It  was  in  the  main  conceded  by  most  physicists, 
and  the  doctrine  remained  unquestioned  by  biologists, 
that  matter  of  certain  kinds  might,  by  virtue  of  its 
own  inherent  properties,  aided  by  certain  favouring 
circumstances — and  quite  independently  of  all  pre- 
existing germs — fall  into  such  modes  of  collocation  as 
to  give  rise  to  crystals.  But,  owing  to  the  influence  of 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  309 

the  theoretical  considerations  already  mentioned  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  Life,  a  similar  possibility  could 
not  easily  be  granted  by  many,  in  reference   to   the 
origin  of  living  things.    Was  it  not  held  that  the  living 
thing  owed  its  structure  or  organization  to  the  active 
influence  of  a  special  and  peculiar  principle  ?      This 
c  vital  principle '  was  neither  ordinary  matter  nor  ordinary 
force,  neither  was  it  in  any  way  derivable  from  either 
of  these  ;  how  then  could  it  be  supposed  that  the  coming 
together  of  matter  of  any  kind  could  give  rise  to  a 
living  thing  ?     The  aggregate  of  properties,  which  we 
designate  by  the  word  c  Life/  were  not  supposed  to  be 
dependent  upon — -to  be,  in  fact,  properties  of  the  material 
aggregate  which  constituted  the  living  thing.     Life  was 
presumed  to  be  due  to  the  manifestation  of  a  something 
altogether  peculiar — of  a  c  vital  principle,'  which  was 
inseparable  from  living  matter.     Doubts,  however,  as 
to  the  truth  of  this  doctrine  have  gradually  multiplied 
and  increased  in  strength.     New  means  of  observation 
opened  up  new  questions  for  solution,   and  the   ever- 
increasing  strides  of  science  have  wrought  the   most 
fundamental  changes  in  our  notions  concerning  Life. 
Under  the  influence    of  the  well-established  doctrine 
concerning  Persistence  of  Force — and  more  especially 
since  the  clear  recognition  of  the  subordinate  doctrine 
as  to  the  Correlation  existing  between  the  Physical  and 
Vital  forces — physiologists  have  now  begun  to  recognise, 
and  most  unhesitatingly  to  proclaim  the  opinion,  that 
the  phenomena  manifested  by  living  things  are  to  be 


310  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

ascribed  simply  to  the  properties  of  the  matter  as  it 
exists  in  such  living  things.  No  one  has  expressed 
himself  more  decidedly  on  this  subject  than  Prof.  Huxley, 
and  he  may  fairly  be  taken  as  an  exponent  of  the 
modern  doctrines  on  this  question.  He  says l :  <•  Carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen  are  all  lifeless  bodies. 
Of  these,  carbon  and  oxygen  unite  in  certain  pro- 
portions and  under  certain  conditions  to  give  rise  to 
carbonic  acid ;  hydrogen  and  oxygen  produce  water ; 
nitrogen  and  hydrogen  give  rise  to  ammonia.  These 
new  compounds,  like  the  elementary  bodies  of  which 
they  are  composed,  are  lifeless.  But  when  they  are 
brought  together  under  certain  conditions  they  give 
rise  to  the  still  more  complex  body,  protoplasm;  and 
this  protoplasm  exhibits  the  phenomena  of  life.  I 
see  no  break  in  this  series  of  steps  in  molecular  com- 
plication, and  I  am  unable  to  understand  why  the 
language  which  is  applicable  to  any  one  term  of  the 
series  may  not  be  used  to  any  of  the  others.  We  think 
fit  to  call  different  kinds  of  matter  carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  and  to  speak  of  the  various 
powers  and  activities  of  these  substances  as  the  pro- 
perties of  the  matter  of  which  they  are  composed.  .  .  . 
Is  the  case  in  any  way  changed  when  carbonic  acid, 
water,  and  ammonia  disappear,  and  in  their  place, 
under  the  influence  of  pre-existing  protoplasm^  an  equivalent 
weight  of  the  matter  of  life  makes  its  appearance  ?  .  .  . 

1  Article  on  '  Protoplasm,'  in  the  '  Fortnightly  Review  '  for  February 
1869. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  311 

What  justification  is  there,  then,  for  the  assumption 
of  the  existence  in  the  living  matter  of  a  something 
which  has  no  representative  or  correlative  in  the  not 
living  matter  which  gave  rise  to  it  ?' 

The  reader's  attention  must,  therefore,  again  be  called 
to  the  fact  that  our  precise  object  is  to  ascertain 
whether  it  is  possible  for  the  first  particles  of  future 
living  matter  to  come  together  de  novo^  and  in  obedience 
to  the  same  physical  influences  which  are  deemed 
adequate  to  bring  about  its  growth  or  increase ;  or, 
whether  we  are  to  suppose  that  the  first  particles  of  an 
organism  cannot  be  initiated  apart  from  pre-existing 
protoplasm,  even  though  this  protoplasm  is  believed  by 
a  very  large  section  of  the  physiological  world  to  contain 
no  special  and  peculiar  cforce,'  but  to  owe  its  qualities 
entirely  to  the  ordinary  physical  properties  of  the 
elements  entering  into  its  composition. 

The  actuality  of  the  process  of  Archebiosis,  as  against 
the  hypothesis  of  the  derivation  of  some  organisms 
from  pre-existing  though  invisible  germs,  can  only  be 
established  if  it  can  be  shown  that  living  things  are  to 
be  met  with  in  the  fluids  from  hermetically-sealed  flasks 
which  have  previously  been  exposed  to  a  degree  of  heat 
adequate  to  destroy  all  pre-existing  Life.  This  is  the 
kind  of  test  which  was  proposed  by  Needham  and 
Spallanzani,  and  which  has  been  accepted  by  all  subse- 
quent workers,  including  Pasteur,  as  the  only  one  which 
was  capable  of  throwing  light  upon  the  problem1.  Much 

1  Though  no  one  would  suppose  this  to  be  the  case  from  the  mere 


3T2  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

discussion  has  taken  place  as  to  the  means  of  closing 
the  flasks,  concerning  the  degree  of  heat  which  it  is 
necessary  to  employ,  and  also  as  to  whether  the 
organisms  that  have  been  found  in  such  experiments 
have  been  living  or  dead ;  but,  amidst  all  varieties  of 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  several  details,  there  has 
been  a  general  agreement  that  the  question  was  only 
to  be  settled  in  some  such  manner. 

The  question  as  to  the  limits  of  what  M.  Pouchet 
terms  c vital  resistance'  to  heat  is  that  which  has 
excited  the  greatest  share  of  attention,  and  is  the  one 
which  is  of  most  fundamental  importance  in  this 
enquiry  }. 

In  spite  of  the  very  definite  results,  however,  of  ex- 
periments carried  on  with  the  view  of  throwing  light 
upon  the  subject,  it  is  one  upon  which  the  opponents 
of  c spontaneous  generation'  are  most  reluctant  to 
come  to  any  decision.  They  seem  ever  ready  to  re- 
pudiate the  validity  of  the  results  at  which  they  had 
previously  arrived,,  as  soon  as  experiments  are  published 
tending  to  show  that — these  results  being  correct — or- 
ganisms are  undoubtedly  capable  of  arising  de  novo. 

perusal  of  Prof.  Huxley's  Inaugural  Address  before  the  British  As- 
sociation in  1870,  which  was  destined  to  enlighten  the  public  on  this 
question. 

1  One  of  the  latest  writers  on  this  subject,  Professor  Wyman,  of 
Cambridge,  U.  S.,  says : — '  The  issue  between  the  advocates  and  the 
opponents  of  the  doctrine  in  question,  clearly  turns  on  the  extent  to 
which  it  can  be  proved  that  living  beings  resist  the  action  of  water  at  a 
high  temperature.' — American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art,  Sept.  1867. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  313 

The  positive  evidence  now  existing  on  this  subject, 
however,  which  may  be  considered  all  the  more  reliable 
because  it  has  been  partly  built  up  and  confirmed  by  the 
panspermatists  themselves,  is  of  the  following  nature. 

It  has  been  established  by  most  careful  observation 
that  in  dry  air  or  in  a  vacuum,  organisms  are  capable  of 
withstanding  a  notably  higher  temperature  than  when 
they  are  immersed  in  fluid.  According  to  the  direct 
observations  of  M.  Pasteur,  the  spores  of  certain  fungi 
belonging  to  the  family  Mucedlne*  seem  to  possess  this 
tenacity  of  life  to  a  very  great  extent ;  but  even  these, 
he  says,  though  they  still  remain  capable  of  germinating 
after  having  been  raised  for  a  few  minutes  in  dry  air 
or  in  vacua  to  a  temperature  of  120°  to  I25°C  (248°- 
257°F),  lose  this  power  absolutely  and  entirely  after  an 
exposure  for  half  an  hour,  under  similar  conditions,  to 
a  temperature  varying  from  127°  to  I3O°C  (260°- 
266°F).  And  the  labours  of  the  commission  appointed 
in  1860  by  the  Socie'te  de  Biologic  (consisting  of  the 
following  members — MM.  Balbiani,  Berthelot,  Broca, 
Brown-Sequard,  Dareste,  Guillemin,  and  Ch.  Robin) 
to  enquire  into  the  subject,  led  them  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  lower  animals  which  were  the  most  tenacious  L 
of  life — the  rotifers,  the  c  sloths/  and  the  anguillules 
of  tufts  of  moss  or  lichen — succumbed  at  even  a  much 

1  This  extreme  tenacity  of  life  is  perhaps  due  in  part  to  the  chitinous 
integument  with  which  all  these  animals  are  provided.  It  is  certain  that 
very  many  of  the  lower  forms,  not  so  protected,  are  destroyed  more 
easily  by  the  influence  of  heat  both  in  the  presence  and  in  the  absence  of 
moisture. 


314  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

lower  temperature  than  this.  In  dry  air  or  m  vacua, 
therefore,  we  may  look  upon  the  temperature  of  I3O°C 
for  thirty  minutes,  as  marking  the  extreme  limit,  so 
far  as  it  has  been  hitherto  possible  to  fix  it,  of  vital 
endurance  under  such  conditions — even  for  animals 
which  are  covered  by  a  tough  chitinous  integument. 
There  is,  at  present,  no  evidence  forthcoming  to  shake 
the  validity  of  this  conclusion. 

When  immersed  in  fluids^  however,  the  power 
possessed  by  the  inferior  organisms  of  resisting  the 
destructive  influence  of  heat  is  not  nearly  so  great. 
Comparatively  few,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  are 
believed  to  be  capable  of  resisting  a  temperature  of  75° 
C  (167° F)  j  and  with  regard  to  that  of  100°  C  (212°  F), 
it  has  been  admitted,  by  MM.  Claude  Bernard  and 
Milne-Edwards,  by  M.  Pasteur,  and  by  all  the  other 
most  influential  opponents  of  the  doctrines  of  arche- 
biosis  and  heterogeny,  that  such  a  temperature,  even 
for  one  minute,  has  invariably  proved  destructive  to  all 
the  lower  organisms  met  with  in  infusions J — so  far  as 

1  It  is  quite  fair  to  make  this  limitation,  since  we  are  only  concerned 
with  the  origin  of  such  organisms.  Seeds  of  higher  plants,  provided 
with  a  hard  coat,  may — especially  after  prolonged  periods  of  desiccation 
— germinate  even  after  they  have  been  boiled  for  a  long  time  in  water. 
This  was  ascertained  by  M.  Pouchet  to  be  the  case  with  an  American 
species  of  Medicago.  Some  of  the  seeds  were  completely  disorganised 
by  the  boiling  temperature,  whilst  a  few  remained  intact,  and  it  was  these 
latter  which  were  afterwards  found  to  germinate.  They  had  been  pro- 
tected from  the  influence  of  the  hot  water  by  their  very  dry  and 
hardened  coats.  On  this  subject  Prof.  Jeffries  Wyman  says  : — '  Water 
penetrates  the  seeds  of  many  plants,  and  especially  of  some  of  the  Legu- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  315 

these  had  been  made  the  subjects  of  special  and  direct 
experimentation.  And,  amongst  all  the  diversity  of 
form  presented  by  the  lowest  living  things,  there  is  so 
much  of  uniformity  in  property — living  matter,  as  we 
know  it,  agrees  in  so  many  of  its  fundamental  characters 
— that  biologists  and  chemists  alike  may  feel  a  reasonable 
assurance  as  to  the  probable  universality  of  any  such 
rule  which  has  been  proved  to  hold  good  for  a  very 
large  number  of  organisms,  more  especially  when, 
amongst  this  large  number  of  cases,  no  exceptions 
have  been  encountered. 

Practically,  however,  it  will  be  found  that,  in  order 
to  appreciate  the  bearings  of  the  experiments  which 
we  shall  have  to  relate,  it  will  be  necessary  for  us 
more  especially  to  know  what  are  the  limits  of  vital 
resistance  to  high  temperatures  possessed  by  spores  of 


minosce,  very  slowly ;  in  the  case  of  those  of  Gteditcbia  and  Laburnum, 
we  have  found  several  days  and  even  weeks  necessary  for  the  complete 
penetration  of  cold  water,  though  when  the  water  is  hot  it  penetrates 
much  more  readily.  If,  therefore,  the  seeds  are  dry  when  immersed,  and 
are  boiled  for  a  few  minutes  only,  they  may  still  germinate.  If  they  are 
moistened  beforehand,  the  action  of  boiling  water  has  been  found 
uniformly  fatal.  In  one  of  our  experiments,  twenty-eight  seeds  of 
Gledifcbia  were  soaked  until  their  coverings  became  soft  and  swollen  ; 
one-half  were  planted  at  once,  and  the  others  after  having  been  boiled 
five  minutes.  None  of  the  boiled  ones  germinated,  while  the  others 
did.  Similar  experiments  with  beans  and  with  several  other  kinds  of 
seeds  ended  in  a  similar  manner.'  (A  mer.  Journal  of  Science  and  Art, 
Sept.  1867.)  All  the  organisms  in  which  we  are  interested,  at  present, 
however,  have  no  such  protection.  These  are  mere  specks  or  masses 
of  protoplasm,  which  are  either  naked,  or  provided  only  with  thin 
coverings. 


3l6  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Fungi  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  Bacteria  and  Vibriones 
on  the  other. 

I  am  not  aware  of  any  experiments  tending  to  show 
that  spores  of  Fungi  can  survive  after  exposure  for  even 
a  few  seconds  in  fluids  raised  to  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water  (ioo°C);  whilst,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  the  concurrent  testimony  of  many  observers 
to  the  fact  that,  after  such  exposure,  germination 
would  never  take  place  because  the  spores  were  no 
longer  living l.  This  was  the  result  obtained  in  many 
experiments  made  by  Bulliard,  and  related  in  his 
c  Histoire  des  Champignons.'  Mere  contact  with 
boiling  water  was  found  sufficient  to  prevent  germi- 
nation; and  M.  Hoffmann2  similarly  ascertained  that 
an  exposure  for  from  four  to  ten  seconds  to  the 
influence  of  boiling  water  sufficed  to  prevent  the 
germination  of  all  the  Fungus  spores  with  which  he 
experimented.  The  experience  of  other  observers 
has  been  similar  to  that  above  quoted,  arid  amongst 
these  we  may  cite  M.  Pasteur  himself.  Speaking 
of  his  experiments  with  boiled  milk  in  Schwann's 
apparatus,  M.  Pasteur  says3: — cje  n'ai  jamais  vu  se 
former,  dans  le  lait  ainsi  traite  autre  chose  que  des 
Vibrions  et  des  Bacteriums,  aucune  Mucedmee^  aucune 

1  I  have  lately  been  informed,  however,  by  Mr.  Lowne,  .that  he  has 
seen  a  minute  fungus  continue  to  grow,  notwithstanding  an  immersion  in 
boiling  water  for  two  or  three  minutes.     So  far  as  I  know,  this  is  an 
altogether  unique  observation  which  stands  in  need  of  confirmation. 

2  '  Bullet,  de  la  Soc.  Bot.'  t.  viii.  p.  803. 

3  'Annal.  de  Chim.  et  de  Physique,'  1862,  p.  60. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  317 

Torulacee^  aucun  ferment  'vegetal.  II  n'ya  pas  de  doutc 
que  cela  tient  a  ce  que  les  germes  de  ces  dernieres 
productions,  ne  peuvent  resister  a  ioo°C  au  sein  de 
Feau,  ce  que  j'ai  d'ailleurs  constate  par  des  expe- 
riences directes/  Professor  Wyman  says 1 :  — c  We  have 
tried  many  experiments  upon  different  kinds  of  moulds 
and  yeast  plants,  and  have  found,  as  nearly  all  ob- 
servers have,  that  they  perish  at  2i2°F.'  The  obser- 
vations of  Baron  Liebig  tend  to  show  that  they  are 
killed  in  fluids  at  a  temperature  even  much  below 
this;  he  says  2 :— c  A  temperature  of  60° C  (140° F) 
kills  the  yeast  cells  ;  after  exposure  to  this  temperature 
in  water  they  no  longer  undergo  fermentation,  and  do 
not  cause  fermentation  in  a  sugar  solution.  ...  In 
like  manner,  active  fermentation  in  a  saccharine  liquid 
is  stopped  when  the  liquid  is  heated  to  6o°C,  and  it 
does  not  recommence  again  on  cooling  the  liquid/ 

The  evidence  which  we  at  present  possess  concerning 
the  tenacity  of  Life  displayed  by  Bacteria  and  Vibriones 
in  fluids  whose  temperature  has  been  raised,  is  just  as 
decisive  as  that  concerning  the  spores  of  fungi.  M. 
Pouchet's  observations  led  him  to  believe  that  Vibrlones^ 
in  common  with  all  the  varieties  of  ciliated  infusoria, 
are  killed  by  raising  the  temperature  of  the  fluid  which 
contains  them  to  55°  C  j  M.  Victor  Meunier  also 

1  '  Observations  and  Experiments  on  Living  Organisms  in  Heated 
Water,'  loc.  cit. 

2  Translation  of  a  paper  on  'Alcoholic  Fermentation,' in  'Pharmaceu- 
tical Journal,'  July  30,  1870,  p.  Si. 


318  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

believed  that  none  of  these  organisms  survived  after 
they  had  been  similarly  subjected  to  a  temperature  of 
60°  C;  whilst  Prof.  Wyman,  as  a  result  of  many  ex- 
periments, always  found  that  their  movements  entirely 
ceased  after  an  exposure  for  a  few  minutes  in  fluids 
raised  to  a  temperature  of  54°-56°C  (i3O°-J34°F). 
There  is  also  every  reason  to  believe,  as  I  shall  pre- 
sently attempt  to  show,  that  an  exposure  to  similar 
conditions  kills  Bacteria  as  well  as  their  less  developed 
representatives — the  primordial  plastide-particles. 

With  reference  to  Bacteria,  however,  one  caution 
is  necessary  to  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  experi- 
menter. Their  movements  which  they  display  may 
be,  and  very  frequently  are,  of  two  kinds.  The  one 
variety  differs  in  no  appreciable  manner  from  the 
mere  molecular  or  Brownian  movement,  which  may 
be  witnessed  in  similarly  minute  not-living  particles 
immersed  in  fluids  j  whilst  the  other  seems  to  be  purely 
vital — dependent  that  is  upon  their  properties  as  living 
things.  These  vital  movements  are  altogether  different 
from  the  mere  dancing  oscillations  which  not-living 
particles  display :  as  may  be  seen  when  even  the  most 
minute  Bacterium  darts  about  over  comparatively  large 
areas,  so  as  frequently  to  disappear,  from  the  field 
of  the  microscope.  After  an  infusion  which  contains 
organisms  exhibiting  these  unmistakeably  vital  move- 
ments has  been  boiled  for  a  second  or  two,  I  have 
invariably  found  that  such  movements  no  longer  occur, 
though  almost  all  the  plastide-particles  and  Bacteria  may 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  319 

be  seen  to  display  the  Brownian  movement  in  a  well- 
marked  degree.  They  seem  to  be  reduced  by  the  shortest 
exposure  to  a  temperature  of  2I2°F  to  the  condition 
of  mere  not-living  particles,  and  then  they  become 
subjected  to  the  unimpaired  influence  of  the  physical 
conditions  which  occasion  these  molecular  movements1. 
In  many  cases,  however,  organisms  that  are  truly 

1  This  statement  concerning  the  two  kinds  of  movements  of  Bacteria 
and  the  power  of  boiling  water  to  arrest  only  one  of  them,  is  almost  word 
for  word  what  appeared  in  '  Nature*  (No.  35,  p.  171),  for  June,  1870.  I 
thought  at  the  time  that  the  statement  was  new  in  certain  respects— at 
least  I  cannot  refer  to  any  similar  statement  in  the  writings  of  others 
previous  to  that  time.  I  was  somewhat  surprised,  therefore,  on 
reading  the  quotation  which  is  subjoined,  to  find  that  Prof.  Huxley,  on 
Sept.  13,  1870,  mentioned  such  distinctions  as  though  they  were  quite 
novel,  and  with  the  tacit  suggestion  that  I  was  unaware  of  them. 
Speaking  of  Bacteria,  he  says, — '  They  have  two  distinct  kinds  of  move- 
ments. The  very  smallest  have  merely  a  trembling  movement ;  those 
which  are  elongated  oscillate  on  a  central  point  in  their  long  axis  rotating 
whilst  in  an  oblique  position.  This  is  one  kind  of  movement.  The 
other  kind  of  movement  is  a  darting  across  the  stage  of  the  microscope, 
sometimes  in  a  straight  line,  sometimes  accompanied  by  oscillations, 
which  gives  a  serpentine  appearance  to  the  moving  Bacterium  or  chain 
of  Bacteria,  whence  the  name  Vibrio.  These  two  kinds  of  movement 
are  not  to  be  confounded.  They  must  be  explained  as  due  to  very 
different  causes ;  and  it  seems  to  me  that  it  is  a  confusion  of  these  two 
which  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  mistakes  made  in  the  assertions  as  to  the 
survival  of  Bacteria,  &c.  after  the  application  of  very  high  temperatures.' 
Prof.  Huxley  goes  on  to  say  that  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  and 
other  reagents  which  certainly  destroy  their  life  and  abolish  the  last 
kind  of  movement,  does  not  put  an  end  to  the  former ;  and  then  adds — 
'  Do  what  you  will,  however,  they  retain  their  tumbling  movement ; 
and  this  is  a  very  misleading  phenomenon.'  (Quart.  Jrnl.  of  Micros. 
Science,  October,  1870.)  What  follows  is  certainly  a  suggestion  that  I 
had  been  misled  by  these  phenomena,  apparently  because  I  was  unaware 
of  the  distinction  then  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Huxley. 


,32,0  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

living  exhibit  only  very  languid  movements,  which,  as 
movements,  are  quite  indistinguishable  from  those  that 
the  same  "Bacteria  may  display  when  they  are  really 
dead 1.  Because  the  movements,  therefore,  are  of  this 
doubtful  character,  some  are  apt,  unfairly,  to  argue  that 
the  ^Bacteria  which  present  them  are  not  more  living 
than  are  the  minute  particles  of  carbon  obtained  from 
the  flame  of  a  lamp  when  they  exhibit  similar  move- 
ments. This,  however,  is  a  point  of  view  which 
becomes  obviously  misleading  if  too  much  stress  is  laid 
upon  it ;  and  it  is  more  especially  so  in  this  case,  when 
it  can  be  shown  that  "Bacteria  which  display  the  most 
characteristic  sign  of  vitality — viz.  c  spontaneous'  divi- 
sion or  reproduction  —  at  this  time,  almost  always 
exhibit  such  mere  languid  movements.  It  should 
always  be  borne  in  mind,  in  fact,  that  mobility  is  not 
an  essential  characteristic  of  living  Bacteria,  whilst  the 
occurrence  of  the  act  of  reproduction  is  the  most  indubitable 
sign  of  their  life-,  so  that  any  "Bacteria  which  are  almost 
motionless,  or  which  exhibit  mere  Brownian  move- 
ments, may  be  living,  whilst  those  which  spontaneously 
divide  and  reproduce  are  certainly  alive — whatever  be 
the  kind  of  movement  which  they  present. 

1  Speaking  of  the  organisms  above  mentioned,  Prof.  Wyman  says  :— 
'  Under  certain  circumstances,  all  signs  of  life  may  cease,  but  the  infusoria 
may  still  be  alive.  If,  for  example,  they  are  developed  in  a  sealed  flask, 
as  soon  as  the  organic  matter  convertible  into  infusoria  is  exhausted, 
their  activity  ceases,  and  they  remain  dormant  for  many  months  ;  we  have 
kept  them  in  this  way  for  a  year ;  but  if  fresh  material  is  supplied  to  them 
they  at  once  resume  their  activity.'  Loc.  cit. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  321 

It  may  naturally  be  asked  if  there  are  any  means  of 
deciding  whether  'Bacteria^  that  have  been  submitted 
to  a  given  temperature,  and  which  exhibit  movements 
resembling  those  known  as  Brownian,  are  really  dead  or 
living.  If  the  movements  are  primary,  or  dependent  upon 
the  inherent  molecular  activity  of  the  organisms  them- 
selves, they  ought,  it  might  be  argued,  to  continue  when 
the  molecules  of  the  fluid  are  at  rest ;  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  are  mere  secondary  or  communicated  move- 
ments, impressed  upon  the  organisms  as  they  would 
be  upon  any  other  similarly  minute  particles,  by  the 
molecular  oscillations  of  the  fluid  in  which  they  are 
contained,  then  the  movements  ought  to  grow  less,  and 
gradually  cease,  as  the  fluid  approaches  a  state  of 
molecular  rest — if  this  be  attainable.  Following  out 
this  idea,  some  months  ago,  I  first  tested  the  correct- 
ness of  the  assumption  by  experimenting  with  fluids 
containing  various  kinds  of  not-living  particles;  such 
as  carbon-particles  from  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  or  freshly 
precipitated  baric  sulphate.  However  perfect  may  have 
been  the  Brownian  movements  when  portions  of  these 
fluids  were  first  examined  beneath  a  covering-glass, 
they  always  gradually  diminished  after  the  specimen 
had  been  mounted  by  surrounding  the  covering-glass 
with  some  cement  or  varnish.  Thus  prepared,  no  eva- 
poration could  take  place  from  the  thin  film  of  fluid, 
and  after  one,  three,  four,  or  more  hours — the  slide  re- 
maining undisturbed — most  of  the  particles  had  sub- 
sided, and  were  found  to  have  come  to  a  state  of  rest. 

Y 


322  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

In  order  still  further  to  test  these  views,  I  took  an 
infusion  of  turnip,  containing  a  multitude  of  Bacteria, 
whose  movements  were  of  the  languid  description,  and 
divided  it  into  two  portions.  One  of  these  portions 
was  boiled  for  about  one  minute,  whilst  the  other  was 
not  interfered  with.  After  the  boiled  solution  had  been 
cooled,  a  drop  was  taken  from  each  and  these  were  placed 
at  some  little  distance  from  one  another  on  the  same 
glass-slip;  covering- glasses  half  an  inch  in  diameter 
were  laid  on,  and  the  superfluous  fluid  from  beneath 
each  of  them  was  removed  by  blotting-paper.  When 
only  the  thinnest  film  of  fluid  was  left,  the  covering- 
glasses  were  surrounded  by  a  thick,  quickly-drying 
cement l.  Examined  with  the  microscope  immediately 
afterwards,  it  was  generally  found  that  the  Bacteria 
which  had  been  boiled  presented  a  shrunken  and 
shrivelled  aspect — whilst  some  of  them  were  more  or 
less  disintegrated — though,  as  far  as  movement  was 
concerned,  there  was  little  to  distinguish  that  which 
they  manifested  from  the  slight  oscillations  of  their 
unboiled  and  plumper-looking  relatives. 

If  the  specimens  were  examined  again  after  twenty- 
four  or  more  hours,  there  was  still  very  little  difference 
perceptible  between  them  as  regards  their  movements. 
And  the  same  was  the  case  when  the  specimens  were 
examined  after  a  lapse  of  some  days  or  weeks.  One 

1  I  always  employ  a  solution  of  gum  mastic  and  bismuth  in  chloro- 
form. If  a  different  varnish  be  employed,  it  is  of  course  necessary  to 
ascertain  that  its  application  is  not  injurious  to  the  enclosed  Bacteria. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  Of  LIFE.  323 

important  difference  does,  however,  soon  become  ob- 
vious. The  bacteria,  which  have  not  been  boiled, 
undergo  a  most  unmistakeable  increase  within  their 
imprisoned  habitat;  whilst  those  which  have  been 
boiled,  do  not  increase.  The  two  films  may  be  almost 
colourless  at  first  (if  the  'Bacteria  are  not  very  abundant), 
but  after  a  few  days,  that  composed  of  unboiled  fluid 
begins  to  show  an  obvious  and  increasing  cloudiness, 
which  is  never  manifested  by  the  other.  Microsco- 
pical examination  shows  that  this  cloudiness  is  due  to 
a  proportionate  increase  in  the  number  of  Bacteria. 

Is  the  continuance  of  the  movements  of  the  or- 
ganisms which  had  been  boiled  attributable  to  their 
extreme  lightness,  and  to  the  slight  difference  between 
their  specific  gravity  and  that  of  the  fluid  in  which 
they  are  immersed  ?  I  soon  became  convinced  that 
this  was  one,  if  not  the  chief  reason,  when  I  found 
that  Bacteria  which  had  been  submitted  to  very  much 
higher  temperatures,  behaved  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  those  which  had  been  merely  boiled;  and 
that  other  indubitably  dead  particles  which  chanced  to 
have  a  similar  specific  lightness,  also  continued  to  exhibit 
their  Brownian  movements  for  days  and  weeks.  This 
was  the  case  more  especially  with  the  minute  fat 
particles  in  a  mounted  specimen  of  boiled  milk *,  and 

1  If  an  unboiled  specimen  of  milk  be  mounted,  a  multiplication  of 
living  particles  (spherical)  takes  place  here  and  there  amongst  the  fat 
globules,  just  as  the  multiplication  of  Bacteria  occurs  in  a  vegetable 
infusion.  In  a  boiled  specimen,  however,  no  trace  of  such  multiplication 
can  be  detected. 

Y   2 


324  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

also  with  very  minute  particles  which  were  gradually 
precipitated  from  a  hay  infusion  that  had  been  heated 
to  302°  F  for  four  hours1.  Trials  with  many  different 
substances,  indeed,  after  a  time  convinced  me  that  the 
most  rapid  cessation  of  Brownian  movements  in  sta- 
tionary films,  occurred  where  the  particles  were 
relatively  heavy  or  large ;  and  that  the  duration  of  the 
movement  was  more  and  more  prolonged,  as  the  par- 
ticles experimented  with  were  lighter  or  more  minute  2. 
So  that,  when  we  have  to  do  with  Bacteria,  the  minute 
oil  globules  of  milk,  or  with  other  similarly  light  par- 
ticles, the  movements  continue  for  an  indefinite  time, 
and  are,  in  part,  mere  exponents  of  the  molecular 
unrest  of  the  fluid.  They  are  always  capable  of  being 
increased  or  renewed  by  the  incidence  of  heat  or  other 
disturbing  agencies. 

In  respect  of  the  movements  which  they  may  exhibit, 
therefore,  really  living,  though  languid,  'Bacteria  cannot 
always  be  discriminated  from  dead  Bacteria.  Both  may 
only  display  mere  Brownian  movements3. 

1  Those  of  the  light  particles  which  come  to  rest,  in  such  cases,  are 
always  in  contact  with  one  or  other  of  the  contiguous  surfaces  of  glass. 

2  The  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid  being  constant.    Where  this  is  dense 
or  viscid,  as  with  glycerine,  Brownian  movements  do  not  occur  at  all. 

3  That  absence  of  even  customary  movements  is  no  certain  indication 
of  the  non-existence  of  '  Life,'  is  admitted   by  most  biologists.     The 
Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley  (Cryptogamic  Botany,  1857,  p.  9-2)    says: — 'It  is 
curious  in  two  such  closely-allied  algae  as  Vancheria  sessilis  and  V.  clavaia, 
to  find  the  fruit  so  very  different.     The  spore  of  the  former  is  perfectly 
inactive,  while  that  of  the  latter  revolves  by  means  of  delicate  cilia 
covering  its  whole  surface.     It  is  clear,  then,  that  we  must  not,  in  these 
lower  cryptogams,  attach  too  much  importance  to  motion.' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OP  LIFE.  325 

Although  the  movements  of  Bacteria  are,  therefore, 
frequently  of  so  extensive  a  nature  as  to  render  it  not 
at  all  doubtful  whether  the  organisms  which  display 
them  are  living,  it  becomes  obvious  that  we  ought  not 
to  rely  too  strongly  upon  the  mere  vibratory  character 
of  their  movements,  as  evidence  of  the  death  of  Bacteria. 
In  the  experiments  which  I  am  about  to  relate,  we  shall 
be  able  to  pronounce  that  the  Bacteria  are  living  or  dead, 
by  reference  to  the  continuance  or  cessation  of  a  much 
more  essentially  vital  characteristic.  If  Bacteria  fail 
to  multiply  in  a  suitable  fluid,  and  under  suitable  con- 
ditions, we  have  the  best  proof  that  can  be  obtained 
of  their  death. 

Having  made  many  experiments  with  solutions  of 
ammonic  tartrate  and  sodic  phosphate,  I  have  almost 
invariably  observed  that  such  solutions — when  exposed 
to  the  air  without  having  been  boiled — become  turbid 
in  the  course  of  a  few  days  owing  to  the  presence  of 
myriads  of  Bacteria  and  Vihriones^  with  some  Torul<e. 
These  organisms  seem  to  appear  and  multiply  in  such 
a  solution  almost  as  readily  as  they  do  in  an  organic 
infusion.  On  the  other  hand,  having  frequently  boiled 
similar  solutions,  and  closed  the  flasks  during  ebullition, 
I  have  invariably  found,  on  subsequent  examination 
of  these  fluids,  that  whatever  else  may  have  been  met 
with,  Bacteria  and  Vibriones  were  always  absent.  The 
difference  was  most  notable,  and  it  seemed  only  intel- 
ligible on  the  supposition  that  any  living  Bacteria  or 
dead  ferments  which  may  have  pre-existed  in  the 


326  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

solution,  were  deprived  of  their  virtues  by  the  pre- 
liminary boiling.  These  experiments  also  seemed  to 
show  that  such  solutions,  after  having  been  boiled,  and 
shut  up  in  hermetically-sealed  flasks  from  which  all 
air  had  been  expelled,  were  quite  incapable  of  giving 
birth  to  Bacteria.  The  unboiled  fluid,  exposed  to  the 
air,  must  have  become  turbid,  either  merely  because 
it  was  capable  of  nourishing  living  Bacteria  which  it 
contained,  or  else  because  it  was  capable  of  evolving 
these  de  novo,  under  the  influence  of  fermentative 
particles  whose  activity  had  not  been  destroyed  by  heat. 
Hence,  in  such  a  solution  we  have  a  fluid  which  is 
eminently  suitable  for  testing  the  vital  resistance  of 
Bacteria, — one  which,  although  quite  capable  of  nourish- 
ing and  favouring  their  reproduction,  does  not  appear 
capable  of  evolving  them,  when,  after  previous  ebulli- 
tion, it  is  enclosed  in  airless  and  hermetically-sealed 
flasks. 

Three  flasks  were,  therefore,  half  filled  with  this 
solution 1.  The  neck  of  the  first  (a)  was  allowed  to 
remain  open,  and  no  addition  was  made  to  the  fluid. 
To  the  second  (£),  after  it  had  been  boiled  and  had 
become  cool,  was  added  half  a  minim  of  a  similar 
saline  solution,  which  had  been  previously  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  which  was  quite  turbid  with  Bacteria^ 
Vibriones^  and  Torul*.  From  this  flask — after  its  inocula- 
tion with  the  living  organisms — the  air  was  exhausted 

1  In  the  proportion  of  ten  grains  of  neutral  ammonic  tartrate,  with 
three  grains  of  neutral  sodic  phosphate,  to  an  ounce  of  distilled  water. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  327 

by  means  of  an  air-pump,  and  its  neck  was  hermeti- 
cally sealed  during  the  ebullition  of  the  fluid,  without 
the  flask  and  its  contents  having  been  exposed  to 
a  heat  of  more  than  90°?.  The  third  flask  (c)  was 
similarly  inoculated  with  living  Bacteria,  though  its 
contents  were  boiled  for  ten  minutes  (at  2i2°F),  and 
its  neck  was  hermetically  sealed  during  ebullition.  The 
results  were  as  follows  : — the  solution  in  the  first  flask 
(*),  became  turbid  in  four  or  five  days;  the  solution 
in  the  second  (&),  became  turbid  after  thirty-six  hours ; 
whilst  that  in  the  third  flask  (f),  remained  perfectly 
clear.  This  latter  flask  was  opened  on  the  twelfth 
day,  whilst  its  contents  were  still  clear,  and  on  micro- 
scopical examination  of  the  fluid  no  living  Bacteria 
were  to  be  found.  This  particular  experiment  was 
repeated  three  times,  with  similarly  negative  results, 
although  on  two  occasions  the  fluid  was  only  boiled 
for  one  instead  of  ten  minutes. 

It  seemed,  moreover,  that  by  having  recourse  to 
experiments  of  the  same  kind,  the  exact  degree  of  heat 
which  is  fatal  to  Bacteria  and  Torulj?  might  be  ascer- 
tained. I  accordingly  endeavoured  to  determine  this 
point.  Portions  of  the  same  saline  solution,  after  having 
been  boiled x  and  then  cooled,  were  similarly  inoculated 

1  It  was  necessary  to  boil  the  solution  first,  in  order  to  destroy  any 
living  things  or  dead  ferments  which  it  might  contain.  As  before 
stated,  it  must  contain  one  or  the  other  of  these,  because  an  unboiled 
solution  of  this  kind,  in  a  corked  bottle  about  half  full,  will  always 
become  turbid ;  whilst,  after  it  has  been  boiled,  it  may  be  kept  inde- 
finitely under  similar  conditions  without  becoming  turbid. 


.328  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

with  a  drop 1  of  very  turbid  fluid,  containing  hundreds 
of  living  Bacteria,  Vtbriones^  and  Torul<e.  A  drying  appa- 
ratus was  fixed  to  an  air-pump,  and  the  flask  containing 
the  inoculated  fluid  was  securely  connected  with  the 
former  by  means  of  a  piece  of  tight  india-rubber  tubing2, 
after  its  neck  had  been  drawn  out  and  narrowed,  at 
about  two  inches  from  the  extremity.  The  flask  con- 
taining the  inoculated  fluid  was  then  allowed  to  dip 
into  a  beaker  holding  water  at  I22°F,  in  which  a 
thermometer  was  immersed.  The  temperature  of  the 
fluid  was  maintained  at  this  point  for  fifteen  minutes  3, 
by  means  of  a  spirit-lamp  beneath  the  beaker.  The 
air  was  then  exhausted  from  the  flask  by  means  of  the 
pump,  till  the  fluid  began  to  boil ;  ebullition  was  allowed 
to  continue  for  a  minute  or  two,  so  as  to  expel  as  much 
air  as  possible  from  the  flask,  and  then,  during  its  con- 
tinuance, the  narrowed  neck  of  the  flask  was  hermeti- 
cally sealed  by  means  of  a  spirit-lamp  flame  and  a 
blow-pipe.  Other  flasks  were  similarly  prepared,  except 
that  they  were  exposed  to  successively  higher  degrees 
of  heat — the  fluid  being  boiled  off,  in  different  cases, 
at  temperatures  of  131°,  140°,  149°,  158°,  and  i67°F. 
All  the  flasks  being  similarly  inoculated  with  living 

1  The  proportion  was  one  drop  of  the  fluid,  opaque  with  organisms, 
to  an  ounce  of  the  clear  solution. 

2  Into   which   a  piece  of  glass  tube  had  been   slipped   to   prevent 
collapse. 

3  Allowing  even  five  minutes  for  the  temperature  of  the  i  oz.  of  fluid 
to  become  equal  to  that  of  the  bath,  it  would  have  remained  exposed 
to  this  amount  of  heat  for  about  ten  minutes. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  329 

Bacteria,  Vibriones,  and  ToruU^  and  similarly  sealed  during 
ebullition,  they  differed  from  one  another  only  in 
respect  to  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  they  had  been 
submitted.  Their  bulbs  were  subsequently  placed  in  a 
water  bath,  which  during  both  day  and  night  was 
maintained  at  a  temperature  of  from  85°  to  95°  F. 
The  results  have  been  as  follows: — The  flasks  whose 
contents  had  been  heated  to  122°  and  J3i°F  re- 
spectively, began  to  exhibit  a  bluish  tinge  in  the 
contained  fluid  after  the  first  or  second  day ;  and  after 
two  or  three  more  days,  the  fluid  in  each  became  quite 
turbid  and  opaque,  owing  to  the  presence  and  multi- 
plication of  myriads  of  Bacteria,  Vibriones^  and  Torulae  $ 
the  fluids  in  the  flasks,  however,  which  had  been  ex- 
posed to  the  higher  temperature  of  140°,  149°,  158°, 
and  i67°F,  showed  not  the  slightest  trace  of  turbidity, 
and  no  diminution  in  the  clearness  of  the  fluid  while 
they  were  kept  under  observation — that  is,  for  a  period 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  days. 

The  conditions  under  which  these  experiments  were 
made  being  in  every  way  similar,  except  as  regards 
the  degree  of  heat  to  which  the  inoculated  fluids  were 
subjected,  and  the  organisms  being  immersed  in  a  fluid, 
which  had  been  proved  to  be  eminently  suitable  for 
their  growth  and  multiplication,  it  seems  only  possible 
to  suppose  that  the  difference  in  the  results  had  to  do 
with  the  difference  in  the  degree  of  heat.  If  such 
inoculated  fluids  after  having  been  raised  to  122°  and 
i3i°F  for  ten  minutes,  are  found  in  the  course  of  a 


330  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

few  days  to  become  turbid,  then,  obviously,  the  or- 
ganisms cannot  have  been  killed  by  this  degree  of  heat ; 
whilst,  if -similar  fluids,  similarly  inoculated,  which  have 
been  raised  to  temperatures  of  140°,  149°,  158°,  and 
i67°F,  remain  sterile,  such  sterility  can  only  be  ex- 
plained by  the  supposition  that  the  inoculated  organisms 
had  been  killed  by  exposure  to  these  temperatures l. 

Some  of  these  experiments  have  been  repeated  several 
times  with  the  same  results.  On  three  occasions,  I  have 
found  the  fluid  speedily  become  turbid  which  had  only 
been  exposed  to  i3i°F  for  ten  minutes,  whilst  on  three 
other  occasions  I  have  found  the  inoculated  fluid  remain 
clear  after  it  had  been  exposed  to  a  heat  of  i4O°F 
for  ten  minutes 2. 

Wishing  to  ascertain  what  difference  would  be 
manifested  if  the  inoculated  fluids  were  exposed  for  a 
very  long  time,  instead  of  for  ten  minutes  only,  to 
certain  temperatures,  I  prepared  three  flasks  in  the 
same  manner — each  containing  some  of  the  previously 
boiled  solution,  which,  when  cold,  had  been  inoculated 

1  More  especially  since  the  fluids  which  had  remained  sterile  would 
always,  in  the  course  of  thirty-six  or  forty- eight  hours  after  inoculation 
with  living  Bacteria,  show  signs  of  an  increasing  turbidity. 

2  That  the  organisms  in  question — being  minute  portions  of  naked  living 
matter — should  be  killed  by  exposure  to  the  influence  of  a  fluid  at  these 
temperatures,  will  perhaps  not  seem  very  improbable  to  those  who  have 
experienced  its  effects  by  attempting  to  keep  their  ringers  for  any  length 
of  time  in  water  heated  to  a  similar  extent.     With  watch  in  hand  I  im- 
mersed my  fingers  in  one  of  the  experimental  beakers  containing  water 
at  I3I°F,  and  found  that  in  spite  of  my  desires  they  were  hastily  with- 
drawn, after  an  exposure  of  less  than  five-and-twenty  seconds. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  331 

with  living  Bacteria,  Vibriones,  and  Torulx.  These  flasks 
and  their  contents  were  then  submitted  to  the  influence 
of  the  following  conditions:  —  One  of  them  was  heated  for 
a  few  minutes  in  a  beaker  containing  water  at  H3°F, 
and  then  by  means  of  the  air-pump  a  partial  vacuum 
was  procured,  till  the  fluid  began  to  boil.  After  the 
remainder  of  the  air  had  been  expelled  by  the  ebullition 
of  the  fluid,  the  neck  of  the  flask  was  hermetically 
sealed,  and  the  flask  itself  was  subsequently  immersed 
in  the  water  of  the  beaker,  which  was  kept  for  four 
hours  at  a  temperature  between  113°  and  nS^F1. 
The  two  other  flasks  similarly  prepared  were  kept  at 
a  temperature  of  n8|u-i27^°F  for  four  hours.  In  two 
days,  the  fluid  in  the  first  flask  became  slightly  turbid, 
whilst  in  two  days  more  the  turbidity  was  most  marked. 
The  fluids  in  the  two  other  flasks,  which  had  been 
exposed  to  the  temperature  of  ii8^-0-i27|0F  for  four 
hours,  remained  quite  clear  and  unaltered  during  the 
twelve  days  in  which  they  were  kept  in  the  warm  bath 
under  observation.  These  experiments  seem  to  show, 
therefore,  that  the  prolongation  of  the  period  of  ex- 
posure from  ten  minutes  to  four  hours  suffices  to  lower 
the  vital  resistance  to  heat  of  Bacteria  and  Torul#  by 


Such  experiments  would  seem  to  be  most  important 
and  crucial  in  their  nature.  They  may  be  considered 
to  settle  the  question  as  to  the  vital  resistance  of  these 

1  During  nearly  the  whole  of  the  time  the  temperature  was  kept  at 
H3°F.  It  only  rose  to  the  higher  temperature  for  about  ten  minutes. 


332  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

particular  Bacteria,  whilst  other  evidence  points  con- 
clusively in  the  direction  that  all  Bacteria,  whencesoever 
they  have  been  derived,  possess  essentially  similar  vital 
endowments1.  Seeing  also  that  the  solutions  have 
been  inoculated  with  a  drop  of  a  fluid  in  which  Bacteria, 
Vihriones,  and  Torul#  are  multiplying  rapidly,  we  must 
suppose  that  they  are  multiplying  in  their  accustomed 
manner — as  much  by  the  known  method  of  fission  as 
by  any  unknown  and  assumed  method  of  reproduction. 
In  such  a  fluid,  at  all  events,  there  would  be  all  the 
kinds  of  reproductive  elements  common  to  Bacteria, 
whether  visible  or  invisible,  and  these  would  have 
been  alike  subjected  to  the  influence  of  the  same  tem- 
perature. These  experiments  seem  to  show,  therefore, 
that  even  if  Bacteria  do  multiply  by  means  of  invisible 
gemmules  as  well  as  by  the  known  process  of  fission, 

1  The  Bacteria  and  Vibriones  with  which  Prof.  Wyman  experimented 
were  derived  from  different  sources ;  and  so  far  as  I,  also,  have  been 
able  to  ascertain,  the  Bacteria  of  different  fluids  are  similarly  affected 
by  exposure  to  similar  degrees  of  heat.  Thus,  if  on  the  same  slip, 
though  under  different  covering  glasses,  specimens  of  a  hay  infusion, 
turbid  with  Bacteria,  are  mounted,  (a)  without  being  heated,  (6)  after 
the  fluid  has  been  raised  to  I22°F  for  ten  minutes,  and  (c)  after  the 
fluid  has  been  heated  to  I4O°F  for  ten  minutes,  it  will  be  found  that, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  the  Bacteria  under  a  and  b  have  notably 
increased  in  quantity,  whilst  those  under  c  do  not  become  more  numerous, 
however  long  the  slide  is  kept.  Facts  of  the  same  kind  are  observable 
if  a  turnip  infusion,  containing  living  Bacteria,  is  experimented  with ; 
and  the  phenomena  are  in  no  way  different  if  a  solution  of  ammonic 
tartrate  and  sodic  phosphate  (containing  Bacteria)  be  employed  instead 
of  one  of  these  vegetable  infusions.  The  multiplication  of  the  Bacteria 
beneath  the  covering-glass,  when  it  occurs,  is  soon  rendered  obvious, 
even  to  the  naked  eye,  by  the  increasing  cloudiness  of  the  film. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  333 

such  invisible  particles  possess  no  higher  power  of 
resisting  the  destructive  influence  of  heat  than  the 
parent  Bacteria  themselves  possess — a  result  which  is 
by  no  means  surprising  when  we  consider  that  these 
gemmules,  however  minute,  could  only  be  portions  of  a 
similar  homogeneous  living  matter,  and  ought  therefore 
to  be  endowed  with  like  properties. 

The  results  just  recorded  seem  all  the  more  trust- 
worthy also,  because  they  are  confirmed  by  the  ex- 
periments of  M.  Pouchet1,  myself,  and  others,  upon 
the  degree  of  c  vital  resistance'  to  heat  manifested  by 
rather  higher  organisms,  which,  on  account  of  their 
very  much  greater  size  and  other  peculiarities,  easily 
enable  the  microscopist  to  decide  whether  they  are 
living  or  dead.  My  observations  accord  very  closely 
with  those  of  M.  Pouchet ;  and  I  have  found  that  an 
exposure  to  a  temperature  of  i3i°F  for  five  minutes 
always  suffices  to  destroy  all  reliable  signs  of  life  in 
Amcebae,  Monads,  Chlamydomonads,  Euglense,  Desmids, 
Vorticellse,  and  all  other  Ciliated  Infusoria  which  were 
observed,  as  well  as  in  free  Nematoids,  Rotifers,  and 
other  organisms  contained  in  the  fluids  which  had  been 
heated 2. 

1  'Nouvelles  Experiences,'  &c.  1864,  p.  38. 

2  In  opposition  to  all  this  concurrent  testimony  as  to  the  influence 
of  comparatively  low  temperatures  upon  the  lower  forms  of  life,  Mr. 
Samuelson  (Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,  Oct.  1870,  p.  490)  desires  to 
impress  us  with  the  idea  that  they  are  capable  of  resisting  a  very  high 
degree   of  heat.      The  evidence  which  he  adduces,  however,  is  quite 
inadequate  to  establish  the  truth  of  such  a  conclusion.     Having  heated 


334  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Such  is  the  evidence  concerning  the  power  of 
resisting  the  destructive  influence  of  heat,  manifested 
by  the  organisms  about  which  we  are  at  present  most 

some  'dry  dust  in  an  open  tube  to  480° C  '  (the  mode  of  estimating  the 
heat  not  being  stated),  after  it  had  cooled  distilled  water  was  added  and 
the  mixture  was  boiled  for  a  few  minutes.  The  tube  containing  this 
was  closed  with  a  stopper  of  cotton  wool,  and  then,  on  the  same  even- 
ing, again  opened  to  the  air,  whilst  some  of  the  fluid  was  poured  into 
another  tube  which  was  afterwards  plugged  with  cotton  wool.  The  effect 
of  the  high  temperature  was  thus  cancelled  by  the  subsequent  addition 
of  distilled  water;  and  the  effects  of  the  boiling  of  this  mixture  'for 
a  few  minutes'  was  subsequently  rendered  nugatory,  so  far  as  all  strict 
experimentation  is  concerned,  by  its  exposure  to  the  air  whilst  it  was 
poured  into  the  new  vessel.  Such  evidence  is  wholly  inconclusive  and 
even  inadmissible.  What  has  lately  been  honoured  by  admission,  in 
detail,  into  a  recent  number  of  the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society ' 
(vol.  xix.  No.  128),  is  not  much  more  cogent  in  its  nature.  In  a  paper 
on  the  '  Action  of  Heat  on  Protoplasmic  Life,'  Dr.  Crace-Calvert  asserts 
that  certain  '  black  Vibrios,'  not  commonly  known  to  naturalists,  and 
other  ordinary  Vibrios,  are  capable  of  resisting  the  influence  of  fluids 
heated  to  300°  F  for  half  an  hour.  The  conclusion  that  the  organisms 
were  living  or  dead  in  the  several  experiments,  was  based  apparently 
upon  the  mere  presence  or  absence  of  slight  movements  of  a  non- 
progressive  nature,  whilst  no  details  are  given  as  to  the  conditions  of 
observation.  In  opposition  to  the  statements  and  experiments  of  Dr. 
Crace-Calvert,  it  may  be  well  to  call  his  attention  to  the  fact  (of  which 
he  is  apparently  unaware)  that  MM.  Milne-Edwards,  Claude  Bernard, 
Pasteur,  Professor  Huxley,  and  many  others  who  cannot  be  ranged 
in  the  category  of  '  investigators  of  germ-life  who  favour  the  theory  of 
spontaneous  generation,'  have  most  deliberately  given  their  assent,  based 
upon  experiment  and  observation,  to  the  view  that  the  lowest  forms  of 
life  are  killed  by  contact  for  a  very  short  period  with  boiling  water. 
The  truth  of  this  conclusion  has  been  again,  of  late,  ratified  by  Dr. 
Burdon  Sanderson — as  I  ascertain  from  a  revise  (with  which  he  has  kindly 
furnished  me)  of  a  paper  entitled  '  Further  Report  of  Researches  con- 
cerning Contagion,'  shortly  to  appear  in  the  Thirteenth  Report  of  the 
Medical  Officer  of  the  Priv  Council. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  335 

interested.  It  will  be  found  quite  harmonious  with  our 
ordinary  every-day  experience,  and  should,  therefore,  not 
be  very  difficult  for  us  to  believe  \  An  embryo  of  one  of 

1  It  is,  moreover,  not  in  the  least  at  variance,  as  some  seem  to 
suppose,  with  the  facts  at  present  known  concerning  the  power  which 
some  individuals  have  displayed  of  braving  the  influence  of  hot  dry  air  for 
very  short  periods,  either  for  the  purposes  of  experiment  or  in  Turkish 
baths.  When  such  comparisons  are  made,  two  points — frequently  lost 
sight  of — should  always  be  borne  in  mind.  In  the  first  place,  there  is 
a  very  great  difference  between  the  destructive  influence  of  hot  dry  air 
and  hot  -water;  and  in  the  second  place,  highly  organized  warm-blooded 
vertebrate  animals  are  protected,  as  it  were,  from  the  destructive  in- 
fluence of  hot  dry  air,  for  short  periods,  by  certain  counteracting 
phenomena  produced  by  the  heat  itself.  On  this  subject,  in  one  of 
our  recent  and  most  valuable  text-books  on  Physiology,  Prof.  Marshall 
says : — '  The  chief  means  of  maintaining  the  normal  temperature  of 
the  body,  in  hot  climates,  consists  in  a  large  increase  in  the  amount 
of  the  water  exhaled  from  the  surface  of  the  lungs  and  of  the  skin, 
especially,  however,  from  the  latter.  The  skin  becomes  bathed 
with  fluid,  the  evaporation  of  which  at'  the  high  temperature  of  the 
surface  and  of  the  surrounding  air,  occasions  a  loss  of  heat  and  a 
reduction  in  the  temperature  of  the  evaporating  surface.  The  effect 
in  reducing  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  greater  if  the  atmosphere  be 
dry  as  well  as  warm,  and  then  also  if  it  be  in  motion  :  these  conditions 
favour  cutaneous  exhalation  and  evaporation.  .  .  .  The  increased  per- 
spiration excited  by  the  great  heat  of  the  skin,  furnishes,  for  a  certain 
time,  sufficient  material  for  evaporation.  There  is  a  limit,  however,  to 
the  amount  of  this  excretion,  and  also  to  its  rapidity  of  evaporation  ; 
for,  when  the  surrounding  air  becomes  moist,  a  check  being  put  to  the 
evaporation,  the  body  is  no  longer  thus  defended,  and  its  temperature 
begins  to  rise.  Thus  in  a  room,  the  temperature  of  which  was  26o°F, 
and  the  air  dry,  it  was  found  possible  to  remain  for  eight  minutes, 
by  which  time  the  body  was  not  much  altered  in  temperature,  although 
the  clothes  and  other  articles  in  the  room  became  very  hot  \Blagden 
and  Banks).  A  case  is  on  record  of  a  person  remaining  ten  minutes 
in  a  dry  hot-air  bath  at  284° ;  whilst  Chabert,  the  so-called  fire-king, 
went  into  ovens  heated  from  400°  to  600° ;  but,  of  course,  for  a  much 


336  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  higher  animals  whilst  still  contained  within  its  egg 
may  fairly  enough  be  compared  with  the  lower  organ- 
isms of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  in  respect  to  the 
quality  of  the  matter  of  which  they  are  composed  j  and 
knowing  the  profoundly  modifying  influence  of  water 
at  a  temperature  of  si2°F  upon  the  comparatively  un- 
differentiated  matter  of  the  embryo  in  the  egg — and 
also,  we  may  add,  even  upon  the  differentiated  tissues 
of  the  parent  fish  or  fowl — need  we  wonder  much  that 
the  same  temperature  should  have  been  hitherto  found 
to  be  destructive  to  the  simple  and  naked  living  matter 
entering  into  the  composition  of  Bacteria  and  Vibriones, 
and  to  the  almost  naked  living  matter  of  Fungus-spores  ? 
If  any  other  result  had  been  ascertained,  would  there 

shorter  period.  Many  workmen  employed  in  foundries  and  glass-works 
also  withstand  very  high  temperatures,  the  skin  being  profusely  bathed 
with  perspiration  ;  these  men  of  necessity  drink  large  quantities  of  fluid. 
When,  however,  the  air  is  moist  as  well  as  hot,  the  temperature  that 
can  be  endured  is  much  less ;  for,  in  a  vapour  bath,  at  a  temperature  of 
only  120°,  the  body  rapidly  gains  heat,  as  much  as  70°  in  ten  minutes* 
and  a  feeling  of  great  and  insupportable  discomfort  is  experienced 
(Berger  and  De  la  Roche).  It  is  said,  however,  that  from  habit  the 
Finns  can  withstand,  for  upwards  of  half  an  hour,  moist  air  or  vapour 
baths  gradually  raised  to  158°,  or  even  to  167°.'  (Outlines  of  Physiology, 
Human  and  Comparative,  1867,  vol.  ii.  p.  511.)  As  soon,  indeed,  as  the 
temperature  of  the  warm-blooded  animal,  as  a  whole,  is  raised  to  no°- 
H2°F,  it  speedily  dies  ;  the  length  of  time,  therefore,  which  it  can  bear 
exposure  to  higher  temperatures  is  almost  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
freedom  and  rapidity  with  which  evaporation  of  its  fluids  takes  place. 
Minute  particles  or  specks  of  naked  living  matter  cannot  avail  them- 
selves of  such  antagonising  influences,  and  even  if  they  had  any  self- 
protecting  resources  of  this  kind,  they  would  be  of  little  or  no  service 
in  an  atmosphere  saturated  with  hot  vapour,  and  of  still  less  avail  when 
the  living  particles  were  immersed  in  heated  fluids. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  337 

not  have  been  much  more  reason  for  surprise  ?  We 
ought  therefore  to  be  very  cautious  how  we  attempt  to 
set  aside  the  conclusions  which  have  been  arrived  at 
on  this  subject — founded  as  they  have  been  upon  direct 
evidence  of  a  most  positive  character. 

From  this  basis  we  may  now  proceed  to  enquire  into 
the  nature  and  results  of  the  experiments  which  have 
been  instituted  with  the  view  of  throwing  light  upon  the 
origin  of  Bacteria  and  other  similarly  low  organisms. 

The  method  of  experimentation  principally  relied 
upon  since  1837  has  been  that  introduced  by  Schwann1. 
His  experiments  have  been  occasionally  repeated  with 
some  slight  modification,  whilst  at  other  times  he  has 
been  exactly  followed.  In  the  latter  case  the  solution 
of  organic  matter  is  boiled  in  a  flask,  the  neck  of  which 
is  securely  connected  with  a  tube  closely  packed  with 
portions  of  red-hot  pumice-stone,  or  other  incombustible 
substance;  and  after  the  solution  has  been  boiled  for 
some  time,  so  that  all  the  air  of  the  flask  has  been 
expelled,  the  flask  itself  is  allowed  to  cool — whilst  the 
tube  containing  the  closely-packed  red-hot  materials  is 
still  maintained  at  the  same  temperature,  in  order  that 
whatever  air  enters  into  the  flask  may  be  subjected  to  a 
calcining  heat  as  it  passes  through  the  tube.  When  the 
flask  has  become  cool,  its  neck  is  hermetically  sealed  by 
the  blow-pipe  flame,  so  that  it  will  then  contain  only  the 
previously  boiled  solution  in  contact  with  air  (at  ordi- 
nary atmospheric  pressure)  which  has  been  calcined. 

1  '  Annales  de  Poggendorf/  1837,  P-  184-     *  Isis,'  1837,  p.  523. 


338  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Since  it  has  been  thoroughly  settled  that  all  the  lower 
organisms  which  may  be  contained  in  the  organic  so- 
lutions are  killed  when  the  fluids  are  raised  to  a  tem- 
perature of  2i2°F,  and  that  no  organisms  have  been 
known  to  survive  after  having  remained  for  thirty 
minutes  in  air  raised  to  a  temperature  of  2,66°  F 
(J30CC),  the  boiling  of  the  fluid  for  a  time  and  the 
calcination  of  the  air  has  generally  been  supposed  to 
be  a  sufficient  precaution  to  ensure  the  destruction  of 
all  organisms  in  the  experimental  media1.  Experi- 
ments conducted  in  this  way  have  yielded  negative  re- 
sults to  some  investigators,  though  many  others  have 
always  maintained  that  in  spite  of  such  precautions — - 
calculated  to  destroy  all  pre-existing  living  things — 
they  have,  after  a  time,  seen  multitudes  of  low  organ- 
isms in  their  experimental  fluids  immediately  after  the 
flasks  have  been  broken. 

Negative  results  in  these  experiments  can  of  course 
prove  little  or  nothing  j  they  may  be  explained  equally 
well  by  either  side:  either  no  organisms  have  been 
found,  because  they  or  all  the  germs  which  could  give 
rise  to  them  have  been  killed;  or,  as  it  is  just  as  fair  for 
the  evolutionists  to  say,  the  absence  of  organisms  can 
be  explained  on  the  supposition,  that  the  fluids  employed 
have  not  yielded  them  because  of  the  severely  destruc- 

1  The  sides  of  the  vessel  itself,  above  the  level  of  the  fluid,  would, 
during  the  whole  time,  be  bathed  by  the  steam  given  off  from  the 
boiling  fluid,  even  if  they  did  not  come  in  contact  with  it  during  the 
process  of  ebullition,  so  that  any  adherent  germs  would  in  this  way 
be  destroyed. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  339 

tive  influences  to  which  the  particular  organic  matter 
had  been  subjected  by  the  previous  boiling  of  the 
fluids.  When  organisms  are  found,  however,  in  solu- 
tions which  have  been  legitimately  subjected  to  the 
conditions  involved  in  Schwann's  experiments,  then 
one  of  two  things  is  proven :  either  the  amount  of  heat 
which  was  hitherto  deemed  adequate  to  destroy  all 
pre-existing  organisms  is  in  reality  not  sufficient,  or 
else  the  organisms  found  must  have  been  evolved  de 
novo,  as  the  evolutionists  suppose.  Unless,  therefore, 
the  standard  of  vital  resistance  to  heat  can  be  shown 
to  be  higher  than  it  was  formerly  supposed  to  be,  any 
single  positive  result  when  Schwann's  experiment  has 
been  legitimately  performed,  is  of  far  more  importance 
towards  the  settlement  of  the  question  in  dispute  than 
five  hundred  negative  results.  It  would  tend  to  show 
that  in  the  particular  fluid  employed,  organisms  might 
be  evolved  de  novo. 

The  experiments  of  Schwann  have  been  commonly 
believed  by  many  to  be  altogether  in  favour  of  the  views 
of  the  panspermatists.  Those  who  read  his  memoir 
will  find,  however,  that  he  did  not  fail  to  obtain  living 
organisms  in  all  his  experimental  fluids.  When  the 
fluids  were  such  as  were  capable  of  undergoing  the 
alcoholic  fermentation  on  exposure  to  the  air,  living 
organisms  were,  in  spite  of  all  precautions,  sometimes 
found  within  his  flasks.  And  although  many  other 
investigators  had  subsequently  obtained  living  things, 
even  when  other  infusions  were  employed,  M.  Pasteur 


340  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

was  quite  inclined  to  believe  for  a  time,  on  the  strength 
of  his  own  experiments.,  that  Schwann's  precautions, 
properly  carried  out,  were  adequate  to  prevent  the 
occurrence  of  organisms  in  the  experimental  fluids. 
These  early  investigations  were  made  with  sweetened 
yeast-water,  concerning  which  M.  Pasteur  says  *,  c  I 
have  certainly  had  occasion  to  repeat  the  experiment 
more  than  fifty  times,  and  in  no  case  has  this  fluid, 
otherwise  so  changeable,  shown  a  vestige  of  organism 
when  in  the  presence  of  calcined  air.'  But  after  a 
time  M.  Pasteur  began  to  employ  an  entirely  different 
fluid,  and  in  all  these  experiments  living  organisms 
were  invariably  present  in  the  previously  boiled  fluids 
from  recently  opened  flasks.  Formerly  he  used  c  Feau 
de  levure  sucree,'  but  now  he  employed  milk — a  complex 
and  highly  nutritive  fluid.  There  was  no  necessary 
contradiction  in  these  results.  Facts  which  had  been 
thoroughly  established  with  regard  to  the  one  fluid 
might  not  necessarily  hold  good  for  the  other.  A 
consideration  so  obvious  as  this  ought  to  have  been 
entertained  by  any  unbiassed  experimenter,  but  it  was 
not  even  hinted  at  by  M.  Pasteur.  As  on  other  occa- 
sions, when  his  experiments  admitted  of  two  interpre- 
tations, M.  Pasteur  spoke  only  of  one.  He  completely 
ignored  an  equally  possible  interpretation — the  very 
existence  of  which  he  left  his  readers  to  ascertain  for 
themselves.  Thus,  speaking  of  his  experiments  with 
boiled  milk  and  calcined  air  in  closed  vessels,  he 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  36,  note  (i). 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  341 

says1: — cje  n'ai  jamais  vu  se  former  dans  le  lait  ainsi 
traite  autre  chose  que  des  Vibrions,  et  des  Bacteriums, 
aucune  Mucedinee  aucune  Torulacee  aucun  ferment 
vegetal.  II  n'y  a  pas  de  doute  que  cela  tient  a  ce  que 
les  germes  de  ces  dernieres  productions  ne  peuvent 
resister  a  100°  au  sein  de  Feau,  ce  que  j'ai  d'ailleurs 
constate  par  des  experiences  directes.  Et  de  meme 
nous  aliens  reconnaitre  que,  si  le  lait  se  putrefe  dans 
les  clrconstances  precedentes^  c*est  que  les  germes  des 
Infusoires  dont  nous  venous  de  parler  peuvent  resister  a 
la  temperature  hum'ide  de  iooc,  lorsque  le  liquide  oil  on 
les  chauffe  joult  de  certains  proprletes?  But  the  passage 
which  I  have  placed  in  italics  has  not  been  demon- 
strated by  any  direct  evidence:  it  is  in  fact  entirely 
opposed  to  all  such  evidence  2. 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  60. 

2  Prof.  Jeffries  Wyman  very  aptly  says  (American  Jour,  of  Science  and 
Arts,  vol.  xliv.  Sept.  1867) : — '  The  study  of  organisms  living  in  thermal 
springs  is  of  great  importance  in  connection  with  the  investigation  of 
the  limits  of  vital  resistance.     Having  become  adapted  through  a  long 
series  of  years  to  their  surroundings,  such  organisms  may  be  supposed 
to  live  under  circumstances  the  most  favourable  possible  for  sustaining 
life  at  a  high  temperature.     It  is  a  well-known  physiological  fact  that 
living  beings  may  be  slowly  transferred  to  new  and  widely  different  con- 
ditions without  injury ;  but  if  the  same  change  is  suddenly  made  they 
perish.'     Even  in  these  most  favourable  cases,  however,  no  living  things 
have  ever  been  found  in  springs  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water, 
though  certain  Conferva  were  found  by  M.  Descloizeaux  in  a  hot  spring 
in  Iceland  which  was  registered  at  208°  F.     No  more  extreme  case  than 
this  can,  I  believe,  be  quoted.     As  Prof.  Wyman  points  out,  however, 
the  question  which  it  concerns  us  to  settle  is,   at  what  temperature  the 
organisms  met  with  in  our  infusions  perish — these  being  accustomed  to 
live  at  ordinary  atmospheric  temperatures,  and  not  being  steeled  against 
the  action  of  heat  by  long  custom  and  habit. 


342  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

He  came  to  the  conclusion  that  if  fluids  with  an 
alkaline  reaction  were  raised  to  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water,  the  organisms  contained  in  them  were 
not  all  destroyed,  because  such  fluids  were  subsequently 
found  by  him  to  yield  living  things  when  experimented 
with  in  the  manner  adopted  by  Schwann ;  and  simi- 
larly he  believed  that  the  organisms  in  these  fluids 
were  destroyed  when  the  fluids  had  been  raised  for 
however  short  a  time  to  a  temperature  of  1 1  o°  C 
(230°  F),  because  after  such  treatment  no  organisms 
were  to  be  met  with  in  the  flasks  to  which  calcined 
air  alone  had  been  admitted, 

The  conclusions  drawn  by  M.  Pasteur  from  his  re- 
searches on  the  subject  at  present  under  discussion.,  may 
be  summed  up  thus : — (i)  When  acid  solutions  of  organic 
matter  are  employed,  no  living  things  are  to  be  met  with 
in  repeating  Schwann's  experiments,  because  all  pre- 
existing organisms  are  destroyed,  and  living  things  are 
believed  to  be  incapable  of  arising  de  novoj  but  (2)  when 
neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  solutions  are  made  use  of, 
organisms  may  be  met  with  if  such  infusions  are  merely 
raised  to  the  temperature  of  1 00°  C,  though  (3)  they  are 
never  to  be  seen  when  similar  infusions  have  been  raised 
to  a  temperature  of  no°C.  On  account  of  these  sup- 
posed facts,  and  on  the  strength  of  a  chain  of  indirect 
evidence,  M.  Pasteur  assumes,  that  whilst  Bacteria  are 
destroyed  in  acid  fluids  at  a  temperature  of  ioo°C,  their 
hypothetical  c germs'  are  not  destroyed  in  a  neutral  or 
slightly  alkaline  fluid  at  100°  C,  though  they  do  cease 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  343 

to  live  in  such  a  fluid  after  it  has  been  exposed  to 
no°C. 

In  the  next  chapter  I  shall  endeavour  to  show  how 
far  the  particular  results  of  M.  Pasteur's  experiments 
are  entitled  to  be  taken  as  the  basis  for  any  general 
conclusions  on  the  great  question  of  the  Origin  of  Life, 
and  how  far  his  assumptions  were  warrantable  in  the 
face  of  existing  evidence. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PROOF.     UNTENABILITY  OF 
PASTEUR'S  CONCLUSIONS. 

Different  results  obtainable  by  Schwann's  method  of  experimentation. 
M.  Pasteur's  conclusions.  Presence  of  air  in  flasks  not  essential. 
Evolution  in  vacua  previously  thought  impossible.  New  method 
of  experimentation.  Results  with  acid  infusions.  Abundance  of 
living  organisms.  Experiments  with  acid  saline  solutions.  These 
not  often  yielding  Bacteria,  but  rather  Torula  or  Fungi. 

M.  Pasteur  does  not  adequately  consider  the  nature  of  the  fluid  employed. 
Thinks  too  exclusively  about  the  germ -killing  powers  of  acid  or 
alkaline  fluids.  Pays  no  attention  to  opposing  views.  Negative  re- 
sults equally  capable  of  explanation  on  either  hypothesis.  Importance 
of  positive  results.  M.  Pasteur  not  entitled  to  his  conclusion  about 
germs  in  alkaline  solutions.  His  indirect  evidence  negatived  by 
direct  evidence.  Other  explanations  more  probable.  Difference  in 
degree  of  fermentability  between  acid  and  neutral  states  of  same 
solution.  Experiments  in  illustration.  Differences  seen  with 
solutions  fully  exposed  to  air  and  germs.  Similar  in  kind  to  those 
quoted  by  M.  Pasteur.  Fluids  most  favourable  for  growth  also 
most  favourable  for  evolution.  Fertility  of  any  given  solution 
often  in  the  inverse  ratio  to  its  acidity.  Effect  of  acidity  intensified 
by  high  temperatures.  Improbability  of  M.  Pasteur's  explanations 
in  face  of  these  results. 

THE  experiments  most  frequently  cited  as  adverse  to 
the  possibility  of  the  de  novo  origination  of  living 
things,  have  been  stated  to  be  those  of  Schwann,  or  re- 
petitions of  them  by  other  experimenters.     And  yet,  as 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  345 

already  mentioned,  Schwann's  results  were  by  no  means 
universally  adverse  to  this  possibility.  Sometimes 
living  organisms  were  met  with  in  his  flasks,  when  the 
fluids  employed  were  such  as  underwent  the  vinous 
fermentation.  Many  other  observers  have  also  found 
organisms  in  fluids  from  hermetically-sealed  flasks 
which  had  been  strictly  subjected  to  the  conditions 
prescribed  by  Schwann ;  and  that  not  unfrequently 
when  the  change  which  the  fluid  had  undergone  was 
of  a  putrefactive  rather  than  of  a  fermentative  cha- 
racter. Amongst  those  who  have  obtained  these  posi- 
tive results  may  be  named  Mantegazza,  Pouchet,  Joly, 
Musset,  Wyman,  Bennett,  Child,  and  others — including 
even  Pasteur  himself1. 

But,  as  soon  as  M.  Pasteur  discovered  that  organisms 
were  undoubtedly  to  be  met  with  under  these  con- 
ditions, and  irrespective  of  the  limitations  established 
by  Schwann,  he  sought  to  include  all  such  exceptional 
cases  under  a  new  general  rule.  After  further  experi- 
ments he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  living  organisms 
might  be  encountered  in  almost  any  suitable  neutral  or 
slightly  alkaline  solution,  which  had  been  submitted  to 
Schwann's  conditions,  though,  on  the  contrary,  they  were 
not  to  be  met  with  when  the  solutions  employed  had 
an  acid  reaction.  This  rule  was  represented  by  M. 
Pasteur  to  be  absolute.  And,  although  the  results  of 

1  As  it  would  be  impossible  to  give  any  adequate  account  of  all  these 
valuable  experiments,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  works,  already 
cited,  in  which  they  are  detailed. 


346  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  investigators  above  mentioned  did  not  permit  them 
to  come  to  a  similar  conclusion,  still  M.  Pasteur's 
reputation  as  an  exact  and  brilliant  experimenter  has 
been  all-powerful,  and  the  majority  of  readers  have, 
apparently,  been  only  too  willing  to  believe  implicitly 
in  conclusions  which  they  may  have  found  to  be  com- 
patible with  their  own  theories  or  prejudices.  They  have 
not  hesitated  to  explain  away  results  of  a  contradictory 
nature,  on  the  ground  that  those  who  made  the  ex- 
periments had  not  taken  sufficient  care  to  perform 
them  in  a  thoroughly  stringent  manner,  or  else  on  the 
supposition  that  the  organisms  which  they  had  found 
in  their  experimental  fluids  were  not  living.  c  Was  it 
certain  that  the  flasks  had  been  hermetically  sealed? 
Had  the  air  been  sufficiently  calcined?  Were  the 
organisms  which  had  been  seen  really  alive  ?'  Such 
were  the  questions  and  doubts  that  were  continually 
addressed  to  persons  who  chanced  to  get  results  at  all 
different  from  those  of  M.  Pasteur.  His  experiments 
and  reasonings  have  again  and  again  been  quoted  as 
alike  unanswerable.  Nevertheless,  I  hope  to  be  able  to 
show  that  his  conclusions  are  rendered  untenable  in  the 
face  of  further  experiments,  and  that  M.  Pasteur  was 
not  even  entitled  to  draw  the  conclusions  which  he  did 
draw  from  his  own  experiments.  Assumptions  have 
occasionally  been  inserted,  in  his  chain  of  reasoning, 
as  though  they  were  established  facts,  and  his  whole 
argument  has,  therefore,  been  rendered  weak  and 
vulnerable. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  347 

Although  the  presence  of  air  within  the  closed  flasks 
has  generally  been  considered  essential,  still  it  had  been 
shown  by  Fray  \  even  before  the  time  of  Schwann,  that 
atmospheric  air  might  be  replaced  by  other  gases,  such 
as  hydrogen  or  nitrogen,  and  that  even  then  (with  the 
method  of  closing  the  vessels  at  the  time  in  vogue) 
living  organisms  were  subsequently  to  be  met  with  in 
the  infusions.  More  recently  Prof,  Mantegazza2  and 
M,  Pouchet  3  showed  that  oxygen  gas  might  be  success- 
fully substituted  for  atmospheric  air,  in  experiments 
which  in  other  respects  complied  with  Schwann's  con- 
ditions; whilst  Dr.  Child4  has  also  shown  that  organisms 
are  to  be  met  with  when  either  oxygen  or  nitrogen 
is  substituted  for  atmospheric  air  in  similar  experi- 
ments. He  failed  to  get  any  positive  results,  how- 
ever, in  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  or  hydrogen 
gases. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  was  thought  by  Burdach  5  that 
organisms  were  not  procurable  unless  the  hermetically- 
sealed  flasks  contained  a  certain  amount  of  air.  He 
says  : — d  Gruithuisen  discovered  that  infusions,  other- 
wise very  prolific  (those  of  hay,  for  example),  did  not 
yield  infusoria  in  glass  vessels  in  which  the  stopper 
touched  the  surface  of  the  fluid/  In  a  comparatively 

1  'Essai  sur  1'origine  des  corps  organises  et  inorganis^s,'  Paris,  1821, 
pp.  5-8. 

2  '  Giornale.  dell.  R.  Istituto  Lombardo,'  t.  iii.,  1851. 
3 «  Compt.  Rend.'  (1858),  t.  xlvii. 

4 '  Essays  on  Physiol.  Subjects,'  2nd  ed.,  1869,  p.  114. 

5  '  Traite  de  Physiologic  '  (Transl.  by  Jourdan),  1837,  t.  I  p.  16. 


348  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

recent  paper  by  Prof.  Wyman1,  also,  in  giving  an 
account  of  experiments  which  were  more  than  usually 
productive,  he  says,  cThe  amount  of  infusion  used 
was  from  one-twentieth  to  one-thirtieth  of  the  whole 
capacity  of  the  flask-'  the  object  of  employing  this 
comparatively  small  quantity  of  fluid  being,  as  he 
adds,  cto  have  the  materials  exposed  to  as  large  a 
quantity  of  air  as  possible.'  These  facts  and  reasonings 
were  consistent  enough  with  the  view  that  putrefactive 
and  fermentative  changes  were  incited  in  the  organic 
fluids  under  the  influence  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air  above 
them 2 :  and  this  has  been  the  doctrine  most  in  vogue 
amongst  those  who  have  believed  in  the  possibility  of 
the  de  novo  origination  of  living  things. 

It  had  been  stated  by  Spallanzani  that  whilst  organisms 
were  procurable  from  hermetically-sealed  flasks  in  which 
the  air  was  somewhat  ratified,  they  were  not  to  be 
met  with  when  the  rarefactioji  was  extreme,  or  where 
a  vacuum  existed3.  Although  this  was  a  conclusion 
which  seemed  to  be  generally  accepted4,  still,  on  re- 

1  '  American  Journal  of  Science,'  vol.  xxxiv.,  July,  1862. 

2  Thus  Gerhardt  says  ('  Chimie  Organique,'  1856,  t.  iv.p.  537) : — '  Get 
oxygene   est   en  effet  la   cause   premiere   de   tous   les   phenomenes  de 
fermentation  et  de  putrefaction.'     Dr.  Child's  experiments,  showing  that 
organisms  might  be  found  even  in  presence  of  pure  nitrogen  gas,  were 
made  two  or  three  years  subsequently  to  those  we  are  now  alluding  to 
by  Prof.  Wyman. 

3  See  '  Obs.  et  exp.  sur  les  Animalcules,'  p.  140. 

4  M.  Pouchet,  for  instance,  rejected  as  preposterous  the  notion  that 
organisms  could  be  expected  to  occur  under  such  conditions,  in  some 
experiments  made  by  M.  Milne-Edwards  (see  'Nouvelles  Experiments,' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  349 

flection,  it  appeared  to  me  to  be  one  which  might  very 
possibly  be  erroneous. 

Putrefactive  or  fermentative  changes  might  not 
always  be  initiated  by  contact  of  organic  matter  with 
oxygen  or  any  other  gas, — it  might  occasionally  be  de- 
pendent upon  the  inherent  instability  of  the  organic 
matter  itself.  Independently  of  the  fact,  therefore, 
that  the  sealing  of  the  flask  after  all  the  air  had  been 
expelled  and  during  ebullition  of  the  fluid,  was  a  much 
simpler  process  than  having  to  admit  calcined  air  and 
sealing  the  flask  after  it  had  cooled,  it  seemed  likely 
that  the  presence  of  a  vacuum  might,  for  other  reasons, 
sometimes  prove  to  be  a  great  advantage.  It  appeared 
quite  possible  that  the  diminution  of  pressure  in  the 
early  stages  of  the  experiment  might  favour  the  ini- 
tiation of  rearrangements  amongst  the  molecules  of  the 
dissolved  organic  substances,  whilst  the  absence  of  air 
might  permit  these  changes  to  go  much  further  than 
they  could  have  done  if  calcined  air  had  been  present, 
because  the  vacuum  would  afford  a  space  into  which 
residual  gases  might  collect  without  at  once  inducing 
an  undue  amount  of  pressure  within  the  flask 1.  Ex- 

1864,  p.  12,  note);  whilst  on  another  page  he  says: — 'La  presence  de 
Tair  parait  etre  1'une  des  conditions  fondam  en  tales  de  la  fermentation. 
Plus  il  est  abondant  plus  elle  semble  active.  Si  on  le  confine,  ou  s'il 
manque,  cet  acte  chimique  est  paralys£  ou  absolument  entrave.'  (p.  156.) 
1  I  was  actually  led  to  adopt  this  important  modification,  perhaps,  by 
a  mere  chance.  In  the  spring  of  last  year  Mr.  Temple  Orme,  of 
University  College,  had  kindly  undertaken  to  perform  some  experiments 
with  me  bearing  upon  this  subject.  One  day,  however,  he  told  me  he 


350  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

cessive  pressure  certainly  does  occur,  and  occasionally  it 
has  been  so  extreme  as  to  cause  a  rupture  of  the  vessel 1. 
The  tension  within  the  flask  was  thought  likely  to  be 
especially  unfavourable  to  the  occurrence  of  fermen- 
tation or  putrefaction,  since  it  had  been  experimentally 
proved  by  Mr.  Sorby 2  that  pressure  does  undoubtedly 
influence  c  chemical  changes  taking  place  slowly,'  and 
which  are  therefore  c  probably  due  to  weak  or  nearly 
counterbalanced  affinities.'  This  influence  of  pressure 
in  checking  chemical  change  is  more  especially  seen  in 
cases  where  the  chemical  actions  are  accompanied  by 
the  evolution  of  a  gas.  So  that,  as  Mr.  Sorby  adds,  c  it 
may  cause  a  compound  to  be  permanent,  which  would 
otherwise  be  decomposed/  For  these  reasons  I  was  led 
to  adopt 'the  following  method  of  experimentation  : — 
After  each  flask  had  been  thoroughly  cleaned  with 

had  boiled  an  infusion  of  hay  for  four  hours,  and  had  then  hermetically 
sealed  the  neck  of  the  flask  whilst  ebullition  continued.  In  this  way  a 
more  or  less  perfect  vacuum  was  procured.  This  he  did  as  a  sort  of 
tentative  experiment ;  but  it  was  then,  on  thinking  over  the  subject,  that 
I  resolved  to  give  the  plan  a  thorough  trial,  as  it  appeared  to  me  that 
by  so  doing  I  should  be  working  under  conditions  which  were  most  in 
accordance  with  the  theory  of  evolution.  I  performed  four  experiments 
at  that  time  in  concert  with  Mr.  Temple  Orme,  with  hay  infusions, 
which  had  been  boiled  for  four  hours,  and  had  then  been  sealed  up  in 
vacua.  In  each  of  these  fluids,  organisms  were  found  after  a  com- 
paratively short  time.  These  were  the  first  experiments  performed 
under  such  conditions.  In  my  subsequent  work  I  have  not  had  the 
benefit  of  Mr.  Orme's  personal  assistance,  although  I  have  frequently 
profited  by  suggestions  which  he  has  made. 

1  '  Essays  on  Physiological  Subjects,'  2nd  ed.,  1869,  pp.  113,  114. 

2  Bakerian  Lecture  '  On  the  Direct  Correlation  of    Mechanical  and 
Chemical  Forces.'      (Proceed,  of  Royal  Society,  186.3,  pp.  546  and  539.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  351 

boiling  water,  three-fourths  of  it  was  filled  with  the 
fluid  which  was  to  be  made  the  subject  of  experiment. 
With  the  aid  of  a  small  hand  blow-pipe  and  the  spirit- 
lamp  flame,  the  neck  of  the  flask1,  about  three  inches 
from  its  bulb,  was  then  drawn  out  till  it  was  less  than 
a  line  in  diameter.  The  neck  having  been  cut  across 
in  this  situation,  the  fluid  within  the  flask  was  boiled 
continuously  for  a  period  of  from  ten  to  twenty 
minutes.  At  first,  ebullition  was  allowed  to  take  place 
rapidly  (till  some  of  the  fluid  itself  frothed  over)  so  as 
to  procure  the  more  thorough  expulsion  of  the  air;  then 
the  boiling  was  maintained  for  a  time  at  medium 
violence  over  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  whilst  the 
greatly  attenuated  neck  of  the  flask  was  heated  in  the 
flame  of  another  spirit-lamp  placed  at  a  suitable 
elevation.  The  steam  for  a  time  poured  out  violently 
into  the  flame  of  the  lamp;  and  whilst  my  assistant 
slightly  moved  the  other  lamp,  so  as  to  diminish  still 
further  the  violence  of  the  ebullition,  I  directed  the 
blow-pipe  flame  upon  the  narrow  neck  of  the  flask,  and 
sealed  it  hermetically.  When  the  orifice  was  closed, 
the  heat  was  immediately  withdrawn  from  the  body  of 
the  flask. 

After  a  little  practice  I  soon  became  able  to  procure 
in  this  way  a  tolerably  perfect  vacuum.  Even  though 
the  vessels  were  so  small,  momentary  ebullition  could 
generally  be  renewed  again  and  again  for  the  space  of 

1  They  were  generally  small,  capable  of  containing  from  three-quarters 
of  an  ounce  to  one  ounce  and  a  hah"  of  fluid. 


352  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

five  minutes  after  they  had  been  hermetically  sealed,  by 
the  mere  application  of  one  of  my  fingers,  which  had 
been  dipped  in  cold  water,  to  a  portion  of  the  glass 
above  the  level  of  the  fluid.  The  water-hammer  effect 
was  also  very  obvious,  in  those  which  were  tested  in 
this  fashion. 

I  believe  that  an  almost  perfect  vacuum  can  be 
produced  in  this  way.  During  the  first  violent 
ebullition  the  air  is  driven  out  of  the  flask  by  the  fluid, 
and  as  ebullition  is  continuously  kept  up  after  this  till 
the  flask  is  hermetically  sealed,  there  is  always  an 
outpouring  of  heated  vapour,  and  no  opportunity  for 
re-ingress  of  air.  But  even,  if  in  any  given  case,  the 
vacuum  should  not  prove  to  be  absolute,  it  does  not 
seem  to  me  that  there  would  be  any  material  abate- 
ment from  the  severity  of  the  conditions  which  strict 
experimentation  would  demand.  If,  on  the  one  hand, 
absolutely  the  whole  of  the  air  had  not  been  expelled 
from  the  flasks  during  the  process  of  ebullition,  what 
remained  would  necessarily  be  mixed  up  with  a  very 
much  larger  quantity  of  continually  renewed  steam, 
and  the  effect  would  probably  be  that  any  living 
things  would  be  just  as  effectually  and  destructively 
heated  in  this  as  if  they  were  lodged  in  the  boiling 
solution  itself;  whilst  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  boiling 
had  been  arrested  for  one  or  two  seconds  before  the 
complete  closure  of  the  almost  capillary  orifice  at  the 
mouth  of  the  flask,  and  any  air  had  entered,  it  would 
have  had  first  to  pass  through  the  blow-pipe  flame,  and 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  353 

then  through  the  white-hot  capillary  orifice — it  would, 
in  fact,  have  been  calcined  as  in  Schwann's  experiment. 
The  conditions  of  the  experiment  would  thus  have  been 
no  less  severe,  and  the  only  effect  would  be  that  the 
vacuum  (with  which  I  prefer  to  work)  would  have  been 
rendered  by  so  much  the  less  complete.  These  remarks 
are  made  with  the  view  of  meeting  possible  criticism. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  M.  Pasteur 
always  adopted  this  method  when  he  wished  to  preserve 
solutions  for  a  time  m  vacua  ]. 

After  the  flasks  had  been  prepared  in  the  way  above 
mentioned,  they  were  kept  in  a  warm  place  in  which 
the  temperature  could  be  maintained  at  night.  Some 
have  been  suspended  in  the  air,  whilst  others  have  been 
immersed  in  a  water-bath  heated  by  a  spirit-lamp.  So 
far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  the  temperature  to 
which  they  have  been  subjected  has  mostly  ranged 

1  Whenever  he  desired  to  make  comparative  trials  with  the  air  of 
different  localities,  the  solutions  which  had  been  prepared  in  this  way 
were  considered  by  him  to  be  contained  in  vacuo.  The  necks  of  the 
flasks  were  broken  in  the  several  localities,  in  order  that  they  might 
become  filled  with  the  ordinary  air  of  the  respective  places.  After  this 
had  been  done  the  flasks  were  re-sealed  and  kept  for  future  observation  of 
their  contained  fluids.  M.  Pasteur,  M.  Pouchet,  and  others  who  adopted 
this  method,  carried  away  their  experimental  fluids  in  vacuo,  during  a  two 
or  three  days'  journey  to  the  Alps  or  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  it  never  seemed 
to  have  occurred  to  either  of  them  that  evolutional  changes  might  be 
taking  place  during  the  interval.  M.  Pasteur,  in  fact,  habitually  shut  his 
eyes  to  all  such  possibilities  ;  they  did  not  come  within  the  range  of  what 
he  considered  possible.  Such  thoughts  might,  however,  have  suggested 
themselves  to  M.  Pouchet  and  others,  had  they  not  imagined  that 
evolution  in  vacuo  was  an  impossibility. 

A  a 


354  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

between  75°-86°F  (23°-29°C),  though  occasionally  it 
has  been  even  higher  than  this.  Sometimes  the  flasks 
have  been  exposed  to  the  lower  temperature  and  some- 
times to  the  higher,  and  I  suspect  that  a  variation  of 
this  kind  may  perhaps  be  more  favourable  for  the 
production  of  evolutional  changes  than  maintenance  at 
a  constant  temperature. 

In  detailing  the  results  of  the  following  experiments, 
I  shall  not  enter  into  any  minute  description  of  the 
organisms  found.  The  main  object  throughout  has 
been  to  obtain  evidence  on  the  subject  as  to  whether  a 
de  novo  evolution  of  living  things  could  or  could  not 
take  place.  Occasionally  only  small  portions  of  the 
experimental  fluids  have  been  examined.  If,  for 
instance,  what  was  found  in  the  first  few  drops  of  the 
fluid  left  no  doubt  in  my  mind  as  to  the  nature  and 
abundance  of  some  living  things  contained  therein,  the 
remaining  portions  of  the  fluid  were  frequently  not 
scrutinized. 

Seeing  that  M.  Pasteur  and  others  admit  that  organ- 
isms are  to  be  met  with  in  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline 
fluids,  treated  in  the  manner  adopted  by  Schwann  !, 
I  will  only  mention  the  fact  that  neutral  solutions  of 
hay,  mutton,  beef,  and  other  substances  have  also 
readily  yielded  organisms  in  the  course  of  a  few  days 
when  treated  in  the  manner  just  described.  With 
respect  to  acid  solutions,  however,  M.  Pasteur's  verdict 

1  M.  Pasteur's  explanation  of  this  fact  will  be  subsequently  considered. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  355 

is  different.  c  These,'  he  says,  c  are  uniformly  sterile  ; 
and  the  sterility  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
all  the  lower  organisms  and  their  germs  are  destroyed 
in  an  acid  fluid  raised  to  the  boiling  point.' 

The  latter  statement  seems  to  be  quite  true ;  the 
former,  however,  is  one  which  has  been  negatived  by 
the  experience  of  others,  and  which  now  may  be  shown 
to  be  altogether  erroneous.  Alterations  in  the  nature 
of  the  fluid  employed,  or  in  the  method  of  experimenta- 
tion— either  singly  or  in  combination — easily  show  the 
untenability  of  M.  Pasteur's  conclusion  with  respect  to 
the  sterility  of  acid  fluids. 

A. — Experiments  in  which  the  fluids  were  raised  to 
a  temperature  of  2i2°F  for  from  10  to  20  minutes, 
and  in  which  the  flasks  were  hermetically  sealed  whilst 
the  fluids  were  still  boiling. 

SERIES  a. — Fluids  employed  being  filtered  infusions,  containing 
organic  matter  in  solution  and  having  an  acid  reaction. 

Experiment  i.  A  closed  flask  containing  a  very  strong 
infusion  of  hay  (boiled  for  five  minutes),  to  which  had 
been  added  ?nrth  part  of  carbolic  acid,  was  opened  twelve 
days  after  it  had  been  hermetically  sealed. 

The  solution  remained  quite  clear  for  the  first  four 
days,  but  on  the  fifth  day  a  small  quantity  of  a 
powdery  sediment  was  observed,  and  also  one  small, 
grey,  flake-like  mass.  On  the  seventh  day  more  minute 

A  a  2 


356  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

flakes  were  noticed,  and  also  a  slight  general  turbidity 
of  the  fluid.  The  turbidity  and  deposit  having  slightly 
increased,  the  flask  was  opened  on  the  twelfth  day. 
The  vacuum  was  found  to  have  been  only  very  slightly 
impaired ;  and  the  reaction  of  the  fluid  was  still  very 
strongly  acid. 

On  microscopical  examination  of  some  of  the 
deposit  there  were  found,  amongst  granular  flakes  and 
aggregations,  a  large  number  of  Torula  cells  of  most 
various  shapes  and  sizes ;  also,  in  the  midst  of  granule- 
heaps,  many  large,  rounded  or  ovoidal,  densely  granular, 


FIG.  23. 

Organisms  found  in  an  Infusion  of  Hay,  plus  one-twentieth  part 
of  Carbolic  Acid.     (  X  800.) 

nucleated  bodies — whose  average  size  was  y-gVir"  i*1 
diameter,  though  there  were  many  much  larger,  and 
others  even  less  than  half  this  size.  Intertwined 
amongst  the  granular  matter  also  were  a  large  number 
of  algoid  filaments  ^^Q -$>'  in  diameter,  containing  seg- 
mented protoplasmic  contents.  There  were  also  in  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  357 

fluid  itself  a  number  of  medium-sized,  unsegmented 
Bacteria,  whose  movements  were  somewhat  languid  \ 

Experiment  2.  A  closed  flask  containing  a  filtered 
infusion 2  of  turnip,  was  opened  five  days  after  it  had 
been  hermetically  sealed. 

On  the  second  day  after  the  flask  had  been  sealed, 
the  previously  clear  solution  began  to  exhibit  a  cloudy 
appearance.  The  next  day  a  reticulated  scum  was  seen 
on  the  surface  of  the  fluid,  which  gradually  became 
more  manifest  on  the  two  following  days.  When  the 
neck  of  the  flask  was  opened,  its  contents  were  found 
to  emit  a  most  foetid,  sickly  odour. 

Microscopical  examination  revealed  Bacteria,  and  a 
very  large  number  of  Vibriones — mostly  without  joints — 
some  straight  and  others  bent,  some  motionless  and 
others  exhibiting  languid  movements.  These,  mixed 
up  with  a  thickly  interlaced  network  of  Leptothrix 

1  This  experiment  was  one  of  a  series  of  six,  in  which  the  same  hay 
solution   was   employed  (see  Appendix  C,  pp.  xlii-xlvi).     A   flask   in 
which  the  hay  solution  had  been  boiled  without  any  addition  of  carbolic 
acid,  and  which  had  been  sealed  after  the  solution  had  become  cool  and 
the  flask  was  full  of  ordinary  air,  yielded  no  organisms. 

2  This  and  other  infusions  of  a  similar  nature  have  been  prepared  by 
cutting  a  portion  of  white  turnip  into  small  thin  slices,  and  then  pour- 
ing warm  water  upon  them  (in  a  suitable  vessel)  up  to  rather  above 
the   level  which   they   alone   had   reached.     The   infusions  were   then 
allowed  to  stand  near  a  fire  for  three  or  four  hours,  so  as  to  keep  them 
at  a  temperature  of  from  no°-i3O°F.     Nothing  is  easier  than  to  obtain 
negative  results  in  such  experiments :  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  weak 
infusions,  more  especially  if,  during  their  preparation,  they  have  been 
kept  for  a  prolonged  period  at  a  temperature  near  to  that  of  boiling 
water,  instead  of  at  a  heat  which  can  be  supported  by  the  finger. 


358  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

filaments,  constituted  the  reticulated  pellicle  which  was 
seen  on  the  surface.  The  Leptothrix  fibres  were  partly 
plain,  and  partly  segmented;  they  presented — except 
in  respect  of  their  length — an  appearance  almost  pre- 


FIG.  24. 

Bacteria,  Vibriones,  and  Leptothrix  filaments  met  with  in  a  Turnip  Infusion 
which  had  been  only  five  days  in  vacuo.     (  X  800.) 

cisely  similar  to  the  Vibriones.  The  long  filaments 
seemed,  in  fact,  to  be  only  developed  forms  of  the  shorter 
rod-like  bodies. 

Experiment  3.  A  closed  flask  containing  an  infusion 
of  turnip1,  was  opened  seventeen  days  after  it  had  been 
hermetically  sealed. 

The  fluid  never  exhibited  any  distinct  turbidity,  and 
no  pellicle  formed  on  the  surface ;  there  was,  however, 
an  irregular  covering  of  the  bottom  of  the  flask  by  fine 
granular  matter,  with  here  and  there  a  small  patch  of 
filamentous-looking  substance.  No  bad  odour  was 
perceived  when  the  flask  was  opened. 

1  See  note  2,  p.  357. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  359 

Unfortunately,  just  as  I  was  proceeding  to  examine 
the  contents  microscopically,  nearly  all  the  fluid  was 
lost,  including  the  filamentous-looking  masses.  Exami- 
nation of  a  few  drops  of  the  fluid  which  remained 
showed  a  very  large  number  of  plastide-particles  and 
'Bacteria. 

'Experiment  4.  A  closed  flask  containing  an  infusion 
of  turnip  was  opened  seven  days  after  it  had  been 
hermetically  sealed. 

The  solution  itself  was  much  clouded,  and  its  surface 
was  covered  by  a  thick  gelatinous  pellicle. 

On  microscopical  examination  of  the  fluid  it  was 
found  to  contain  a  multitude  of  plastide-particles  and 
very  active  Bacteria,  The  thick  gelatinous  pellicle 
was  also  made  up  of  an  aggregation  of  these  in  the 
usual  transparent  mucoid  material.  In  very  many  situ- 
ations this  uniform  pellicle  was  undergoing  a  process 
of  heterogenetic  organisation^  such  as  will  be  more  fully 
described  hereafter. 

Experiment  5.  A  flask  containing  a  very  strong  infu- 
sion of  turnip  was  opened  fifteen  days  after  it  had  been 
hermetically  sealed. 

The  solution  itself  was  very  cloudy,  and  there  was  on 
its  surface  a  thick  coriaceous  sort  of  pellicle  marked  by 
more  closely-set  aggregations  or  islets  of  denser  growth. 

On  microscopical  examination  the  fluid  was  found  to 
contain  a  multitude  of  plastide-particles  and  very  active 
Bacteria.  The  Bacteria  were  almost  more  active  than  any 
I  had  before  seen,  and  there  were  many  different  kinds. 


360  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Some  exhibited  rapid  serpentine  movements,  accom- 
panied by  flexions  of  the  two  segments  of  which  they 
are  composed  j  whilst  the  movements  of  others  were 
rapidly  progressive  in  straight  or  curved  lines. 

The  pellicle  was  made  up  mainly  of  simple  Leptothrix 
filaments  (mostly  without  joints  or  evidences  of  seg- 
mentation) j  and  the  thicker  islets  were  found  to  be 
produced  by  a  more  luxuriant  growth  in  these  situations 
of  densely  interwoven  filaments. 

The  pellicle  was  found  to  be  so  tough  and  elastic 
that  some  of  it  could  only  be  mounted  as  a  micro- 
scopical specimen  after  it  had  been  compressed  for  an 
hour  or  two,  by  placing  a  small  weight  on  the  covering 
glass. 

It  would  be  useless  to  quote  other  experiments  of 
the  same  kind,  though  many  others  have  been  made  with 
similarly  positive  results.  Those  in  which  a  hay  infusion 
acidified  by  carbolic  acid  has  been  employed  are 
most  especially  interesting.  In  no  case  has  a  properly 
prepared  infusion  of  turnip  failed  to  yield  an  abundance 
of  living  organisms  in  the  course  of  from  two  to  six 
days,  although  the  reaction  of  the  infusion  has  always 
been  decidedly  acid.  A  distinct  pellicle,  however,  only 
forms  occasionally.  If  a  clear  solution  becomes  turbid 
in  a  few  days,  with  or  without  the  formation  of  a  thick 
pellicle,  and  if  on  microscopical  examination  the  cause 
of  the  turbidity  or  the  constituents  of  the  pellicle  have 
been  found  to  be  Bacteria^  Vibriones^  or  Leptothrtx  fila- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  361 

ments,  no  fair  critic  could  reasonably  object  to  the  in- 
ference that  the  organisms  found  were  living,  simply 
because  they  only  exhibited  languid  movements  more  or 
less  indistinguishable  from  mere  molecular  or  Brownian 
movements.  The  property  of  reproduction  is  a  fun- 
damental attribute  of  living  things ;  the  power  of 
performing  extensive  movements  is  not.  That  repro- 
duction has  taken  place  must  be  obvious  to  all.  How 
else  could  a  clear  fluid,  within  an  hermetically-sealed 
vessel,  become  turbid  owing  to  the  presence  of  myriads 
of  Bacteria  ?  How  else  could  a  thick  pellicle  form  on 
such  a  solution  composed  of  densely  interlaced  Bacteria., 
Vibricnes^  and  Leptotkrix  filaments?  And,  moreover, 
although  in  the  fluid  from  some  of  the  flasks  the  move- 
ments of  the  contained  Bacteria  were  so  languid  as  to  be 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  Brownian  movements,  in 
that  of  others  (as,  for  instance,  in  Exps.  4  and  5)  the 
movements  were  very  active  and  unmistakeably  vital. 
That  the  vessels  were  in  no  way  cracked,  and  that  the 
vacuum  was  in  some  cases  still  partially  preserved,  I 
have  thoroughly  satisfied  myself1.  For  the  rest,  the 


1  This  is  easily  done  by  carefully  heating  the  end  of  the  neck  of  the 
flask  (before  breaking  it),  and  then  softening  it  with  the  blow-pipe 
flame.  The  insinking  of  the  softened  glass  is  a  sure  sign  that  the 
vacuum  is  still  more  or  less  preserved.  The  amount  of  gas  liberated 
in  different  cases  varies  very  much.  In  many  instances  it  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  establish  an  equilibrium  with  the  external  atmospheric  pressure, 
though  occasionally  (even  when  the  fluids  were  originally  contained 
in  vacua)  the  internal  tension  from  liberated  gases  exceeds  the  external 
atmospheric  pressure. 


362  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

experiments  can  be  easily  repeated  by  any  one  who  is 
desirous  of  seeing  such  results  for  himself. 

In  the  next  series  of  experiments,  ammoniacal  and 
other  saline  solutions  have  been  employed.  At  present, 
we  have  to  do  with  these  simply  as  acid  solutions  in 
which  living  organisms  have  been  procured.  The  pre- 
sence of  living  organisms  in  such  solutions,  after  ebulli- 
tion and  other  proper  precautions,  being,  in  accordance 
with  the  admissions  of  M.  Pasteur,  only  compatible 
with  the  de  novo  origination  of  those  which  first 
appear. 

I  was  induced  to  employ  saline  solutions  for  various 
reasons.  In  the  first  place,  after  having  read  M.  Pas- 
teur's statements,  concerning  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  Fungi  which  had  been  placed  in  saline  solutions1, 
it  occurred  to  me  that  it  would  be  a  subject  of  much 
interest  to  determine  whether  any  evidence  could  be 
obtained,  tending  to  show  that  organisms  might  even  be 
evolved  de  now  in  certain  fluids  of  a  similar  character. 
This,  in  fact,  seemed  to  be  a  problem  of  very  great  im- 
portance j  for,  if  otherwise  suitable,  the  employment  of 
such  saline  solutions  would  be  attended  by  certain 
advantages.  It  appeared  likely  that  the  saline  mate- 
rials in  solution  would  be  far  less-  injured  by  the 
high  temperature  of  2i2°F  than  organic  substances. 
We  should  thus,  also,  best  prepare  ourselves  to  be 
brought  face  to  face  with  the  problem — Whether  the 
pre-existence  of  organic  matter,  which  has  been  elabo- 

J  Loc.  cit,  p.  100. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  363 

rated  in  pre-existing  organisms,  is,  at  present,  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  de  novo  origination  of  living  things  , 
or  whether,  in  fact,  these  may  arise,  more  or  less 
directly,  by  changes  taking  place  in  an  aggregation  of 
new-formed  molecules  of  an  organic  type  \ 

At  present,  however,  no  special  precautions  have 
been  taken  to  ensure  the  purity  of  the  chemical  sub- 
stances employed.  These  may,  and  sometimes  did 
undoubtedly  contain  organic  impurities,  so  that  the  fol- 
lowing experiments  are  simply  quoted  as  instances  in 
which  more  or  less  acid  fluids,  containing  at  all  events 
a  very  large  proportion  of  saline  ingredients,  have 
proved  productive  of  living  organisms  when  treated  in 
the  way  already  described. 

SERIES  b. — Saline  Solutions  having  an  acid  reaction. 

Experiment  i.  A  closed  flask  containing  a  solution 
of  ferric  and  ammonic  citrate2  in  distilled  water  (gr.  x. 
to  |j.)  was  opened  29  days  after  it  had  been  hermetically 
sealed. 

A  small  amount  of  powder-like  sediment  had  gra- 
dually collected  at  the  bottom  of  the  flask,  though  there 
was  no  general  turbidity  of  the  fluid.  Before  the  flask 
was  opened  it  was  ascertained  that  the  vacuum  was  still 


1  These  having  themselves  arisen  by  the  combination  of  some  of  the 
dissociated  elements  of  the  saline  substances  employed. 

2  Some  of  the  purest  that  could  be  obtained,  from  Messrs.  Hopkin 
and  Williams. 


364  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

partially  preserved.   The  reaction  of  the  fluid  was  found 
to  remain  slightly  acid. 

On  microscopical  examination  of  the  sediment,  Bac- 
teria were  found,  having  moderately  active  movements 
though  they  were  not  very  numerous.  There  were 
many  granular  aggregations,  from  the  midst  of  which 
were  growing  Leptotkrix  filaments,  though  the  organisms 


FIG.  25. 

Torula,  Leptothrix,  and  Bacteria  found  in  simple  Solution  of 
Ferric  and  Ammonic  Citrate.     (  x   800.) 

which  were  most  abundant  were  Torula  cells  of  different 
sizes,  many  of  which  were  provided  with  a  segment 
across  their  short  diameter,  whilst  each  half  contained 
a  nuclear  particle.  These  Torula  cells  had  a  uniform 
very  faint  greenish  hue,  and  homogeneous  contents. 
They  often  existed  in  groups  of  1 3-20,  or  more. 

Experiment  2.  A  closed  flask  containing  a  solution  of 
ferric  and  ammonic  citrate,  together  with  a  few  minute 
fibres  of  deal  wood  (much  less  than  half  a  grain),  was 
opened  42  days  after  it  had  been  hermetically  sealed. 

The  fluid  continued  clear  and  there  was  no  pellicle  on 
the  surface,  though,  after  the  first  two  weeks  a  slight 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  365 

deposit  began  to  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  flask, 
which  slowly  increased  in  quantity. 

On  opening  the  flask  the  reaction  of  the  fluid  was 
found  to  be  still  slightly  acid;  and  on  microscopical 
examination  of  the  deposit  several  different  kinds  of 
organisms  were  discovered  in  and  amongst  the  granular 
aggregations  of  which  it  was  in  great  part  composed. 
Many  minute  fragments  of  deal  wood — dotted  ducts, 
6cc.— were  also  intermixed. 

Amongst  the  organisms  were  perfectly-formed  Bacteria, 
about  T-^/'  in  length,  which  were  very  numerous  and 
extremely  active  ,•  several  long  unsegmented  Leptothrix 
filaments,  ^-g^"  in  diameter ;  many  oat-shaped  Torula 
corpuscles,  about  ^W  in  length ;  three  or  four  spherical 


FIG.  26. 

Bacteria,  Leptothrix,  Torulce,  and  other  organisms  found  in  a  Solution  of 
Ferric  and  Ammonic  Citrate,  plus  some  minute  fragments  of  deal 
wood.  ( x  800.) 

or  ovoid  fungus-spores,  each  having  a  large  central 
nucleus,  and  others  rather  smaller,  having  granules 
within  instead  of  a  distinct  nucleus;  also,  partly 
imbedded  in  one  of  the  granular  aggregations  was  a 


366  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE, 

distinct  cellular  body,  -^^'  in  diameter,  having  a 
sharply-defined  border  and  finely-granular  contents, 
in  the  midst  of  which  was  a  large  nucleus.  A  thick 
hyaline  capsule  seemed  to  shut  it  off  from  the  granular 
matrix  in  which  it  was  imbedded.  And,  lastly,  there 
were  a  number  of  bodies  closely  resembling  one  of  the 
simplest  kinds  of  Desmids.  Some  of  them  were  single 
ovoidal  bodies,  about  ToW"  in  length,  consisting  of  an 
oat-shaped  mass  of  faintly  greenish  protoplasm  within 
a  larger  delicately  hyaline  envelope.  Others  were  com- 
posite, and  one  mass  was  seen  composed  of  four  much 
larger  segments1. 

Experiment  3.  A  closed  flask  containing  a  solution 
of  potash-and-ammonia  alum,  and  of  tartar  emetic  2, 
was  opened  28  days  after  it  had  been  hermetically 
sealed.  The  fluid  then  had  a  decidedly  acid  reaction. 

The  solution  continued  clear  throughout ;  there  was 
no  trace  of  a  pellicle  and  no  deposit  at  the  sides,  though 


1  Organisms  closely  resembling  these  have  frequently  been  met  with 
in  solutions  similar  to  the  above,  even  when  the  solutions  have  been 
exposed   to  much  higher  temperatures  (see  vol.  ii.  chap.  x.  Exps.  8, 
9,  n  and  12).     And   in  a  flask  containing  an  inoculated  solution  of 
ammonic  tartrate  and  sodic  phosphate,  which  had  been  heated  to  I4O°F, 
and  subsequently  kept  for  eleven  weeks,  bodies  somewhat  similar  were 
encountered.     In  this  case,  however,  they  were  colourless,  and  were 
associated  with  a  number  of  more  ordinary-looking  Torula  cells.    The 
green  organisms  of  the  iron  solutions  bear  some  resemblance  to  the 
Desmids  of  the  genus  Artbrodesmus,  and  to  the  Pediastreae  of  the  genus 
Scenodesmus. 

2  The  quantities  were,  unfortunately,  not  measured.     The  water  used 
was  not  distilled,  but  was  a  pure  drinkable  water. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


367 


a  whitish  flocculent  niass  was  seen  at  the  bottom  of  the 
flask  after  the  first  fortnight,  which  gradually  increased, 
and  at  last  formed  a  mass  about  £"  in  diameter. 

On  microscopical  examination,  the  white  mass  was 
found  to  be  made  up  of  aggregations  of  colourless 
particles,  varying  much  in  size  and  shape,  and  im- 
bedded (f]  in  a  distinct  hyaline  jelly-like  material. 
The  granules  were  highly  refractive,  altogether  ir- 
regular in  shape,  and  they  varied  in  size  from  3Tnn/' 
to  -g-^n/'  in  diameter.  Though  most  of  them  were 


FIG.  27. 

Fungus  met  with  in  a  solution  containing  Potash-and- Ammonia 
Alum,  with  Tartar  Emetic,     (x  600.) 

motionless  and  imbedded  in  the  jelly,  very  many  were 
seen  exhibiting  active  and  independent  movements; 
some  of  these  were  in  the  form  of  little  double 
spherules  (</),  and  a  very  few  others  resembled  Bacteria 
about  si£n/'  in  diameter,  though  they  did  not  possess 
the  accustomed  joint. 


368  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Three  fungus-spores  with  thick  double  walls  were 
seen.  Each  of  these  was  about  ^Vrr"  ^n  diameter. 
Within  one  of  them  there  were  only  a  number  of 
granular  particles  (c],  but  within  each  of  the  other  two 
there  was  a  large  and  somewhat  irregular  nuclear  mass. 

In  addition  there  was  found  the  complete  fungus 
which  is  represented  in  the  figure  (a),  with  all  its 
spores,  and  in  a  portion  of  one  of  the  granular  aggrega- 
tions, a  mass  of  about  thirty  spores  seemed  to  be  under- 
going evolution,  by  a  differentiation  of  mucoid  material 
through  which  some  fine  granules  were  disseminated. 

Experiment  4.  A  closed  flask  containing  a  solution 
of  neutral  ammonic  tartrate  and  neutral  sodic  phos- 
phate 1  was  opened  on  the  75th  day  after  it  had  been 
sealed  2. 

Before  the  opening  of  the  flask  it  was  ascertained3 
that  the  vacuum  had  been  well  preserved.  The  reaction 
of  the  fluid  was  still  slightly  acid.  For  a  long  time  the 
contents  of  the  flask  seemed  to  remain  unaltered,  though 
for  the  last  few  weeks  a  very  small  amount  of  greyish 
deposit  had  collected  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 

When  examined  microscopically  this  deposit  was 
found  to  be  principally  made  up  of  amorphous  granules, 

1  In  the  proportion  of  gr.  xv.  of  the  former  to  gr.  v.  of  the  latter  in  one 
ounce  of  distilled  water. 

2  The  flask  having  been  kept  during  this  time  in  a  warm  water-bath 
which  was  constantly  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  95-90°  F. 

3  By  the  inbending  of  the  neck  of  the  flask  when  heated.   It  had  been 
kept  with  its  neck  immersed  in  the  fluid,  so  that  if  this  had  become 
cracked  the  bath  fluid  would  have  been  sucked  into  the  flask. 


7  HE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  369 

colourless  and  irregular  in  size,  amongst  which  were  a 
number  of  minute  Toru/a-cells,  scattered  here  and  there 


' 


FIG.  28. 

Torulce  obtained  from  a  Solution  of  Ammonic  Tartrate  and  Sodic 
Phosphate.     (X  800.) 

both  singly  and  in  groups.  No  other  kind  of  living 
thing  was  met  with. 

Some  of  this  granular  matter  with  Torulz  was 
mounted  as  a  microscopical  specimen,  in  a  mixture 
of  glycerine  and  carbolic  acid  (16  :  i),  and  in  the  course 
of  two  weeks  it  was  found  that  the  Torulx  had  notably 
increased  in  size  and  in  number  beneath  the  cemented 
covering-glass. 

'Experiment  5.  A  flask  containing  a  solution  of 
ammonic  tartrate  and  sodic  phosphate  was  opened 
twenty  days  after  it  had  been  hermetically  scaled.  The 
reaction  of  the  fluid  was  then  decidedly  acid. 

The  fluid  itself  showed  no  signs  of  turbidity,  and 
there  was  no  trace  of  scum  on  its  surface.  Small 
whitish  flocculent  shreds  had,  however,  been  seen  at  the 
bottom  of  the  flask  for  the  last  twelve  or  fourteen  days, 
during  which  time  they  seemed  very  slowly  to  increase 
in  size.  Some  smaller  sedimentary  particles  were  also 
seen. 

B    b 


370  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

On  microscopical  examination,  some  of  the  white 
shreds  were  found  to  be  composed  of  comparatively 
large  masses  of  small,  colourless,  algoid  filaments; 
whilst  others  were  made  up  of  aggregations  of  fungus- 
spores  with  an  abundant  mycelium  which  had  been 
developed  from  them.  The  spores  were  rounded  or 
oval,  thick-walled  bodies,  varying  very  much  in  size. 
The  largest  of  them  were  about  -r^W"  in  diameter. 
Some  of  them  were  about  to  germinate,  and  these 
exhibited  a  rudimentary  truncated  outgrowth  at 
one  extremity  \  whilst  others  had  germinated  into 
a  fungus  of  the  Pemcillium  type.  In  one  mass  the 
mycelium  had  produced  four  or  five  much  larger  fila- 
ments, terminating  in  artichoke-like  heads  of  different 
sizes,  bearing  naked  spores2.  All  gradations  in  size 

1  Some  of  my  critics  speak  of  this  as  a  'hilum,'  and  look  upon  its 
presence  as  unmistakeable  evidence  that  the  spore  came  from  a  parent 
Fungus.     At  all  events,  such  a  '  hilum  '  is  not  presented  by  very  many 
spores,  and  its  absence  from  any  of  them  does  not  seem  reconcilable 
with  this  hypothesis.     Other  evidence  shows  unmistakeably  that  it  is  a 
rudimentary  outgrowth,  representing  merely  the  first  commencement  of 
the  mycelial  filament  which  ultimately  develops. 

2  Other  critics  seem  to  think  it  impossible  that  such  heads  of  fructifi- 
cation could  be  developed  in  a  fluid,  and  therefore  express  ominous 
doubts  about  my  statements.    Fungi  of  this  type,  however,  were  described 
several  years  ago  by  M.  Pouchet  ('  Nouvelles  Experiences,'  Paris,  1864, 
p,  1 80),  who  says : — '  Parmi  les  especes  submergees,  celle  a  laquelle  je 
donne  le  nom  de  Pemcillium  submersum  est  assure'ment  la  plus  com- 
mune.    Elle  offre  un  mycelium  k  filaments  tres-fins,  tres  long,  rameux, 
articules,  fistuleux.     Les  pedicelles  sont  simples,  excessivement  greles, 
articules,  long  et  offrent  cinq  k  six  cloisons.      Le  pinceau  terminal  est 
petit,  peu  rameux,  et  produit  tine  enorme  quantite  de  spores  arrondies. 
....  Cette   espece   n'est   nullement   decrite,  ni  dans   les   ceuvres  de 
Bulliard,  ni  dans  celles  de  Paulet  ou  de  Corda,' 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


371 


and  appearance  existed  between  the  algoid-looking 
filaments  and  those  which  were  more  obviously  of  a 
mycelial  nature. 


F;G.  29. 

Fungus  found  in  a  Solution  containing  Ammonic  Tartrate  and  Sodic 
Phosphate.  Transitions  between  small  Conferva-like  filaments  and 
well-developed  Mycelium.  (  x  600.) 

A  small  number  of  granules  and  particles  of  various 
shapes  were  seen,  though,  as  in  the  last  solution, 
there  was  nothing  resembling  a  'Bacterium.  Spherules 
which  seemed  to  represent  different  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  fungus-spores  were  met  with, 
varying  in  size  from  that  of  an  almost  inappreciable 
speck  to  that  of  the  perfect  spore — which  itself 
varied  considerably  in  size  even  at  the  time  that  it 
began  to  germinate.  In  one  of  these  fungus-spores 
which  was  about  halfgrown,  the  nuclear  particle  within 
B  b  % 


372  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

was  seen  actively  moving  from  end  to  end  of  the 
cell. 

Experiment  6.  A  flask  containing  a  saturated  solution 
of  ammonic  tartrate  and  sodic  phosphate,  prepared  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  last  solution  and  at  the  same 
time,  though  opened  on  the  thirty-fifth  day,  yielded 
no  organisms  of  any  kind. 

Experiment  J.  A  closed  flask  containing  a  solution 
of  ammonic  acetate  and  sodic  phosphate  was  opened 
forty-two  days  after  it  had  been  hermetically  sealed. 

The  solution  during  this  time  had  shown  no  signs  of 
deposit,  turbidity,  or  pellicle,  and  on  microscopical 
examination  of  the  fluid,  no  organisms  of  any  kind  were 
discovered. 


All  the  fluids  in  the  experiments  hitherto  related  were 
subjected  to  a  temperature  of  212°  F.  It  has  been  pre- 
viously ascertained  that  none  of  the  lower  organisms 
which  had  been  so  treated  and  afterwards  examined  were 
able  to  survive  an  exposure  for  a  few  seconds  to  such  a 
degree  of  heat.  They  had  nearly  all  been  destroyed,  in 
fact,  at  a  temperature  many  degrees  short  of  this1.  Many 
different  kinds  of  organisms  have  been  submitted  to 
this  test,  and  without  the  occurrence  of  any  exceptions2 

1  See  pp.  325-336. 

2  No  exceptions,  that  is,  amongst  such  organisms  as  are  met  with  in 
infusions.     The  only  known  exceptions  to  that  rule  being  met  with  in 
the  case  of  seeds,  naturally  provided  with  a  hard  testa,  which  had  under- 
gone nn  extreme  amount  of  desiccation  (see  p.  314,  note  i). 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  373 

such  a  degree  of  heat  has  always  proved  fatal  to  them. 
Looking  therefore,  on  the  one  hand,  at  the  uniformity 
in  the  experimental  evidence,  which  has  itself  extended 
over  a  wide  basis,  and  on  the  other,  at  the  comparative 
uniformity  in  fundamental  nature  and  property  existing 
between  all  the  lowest  kinds  of  living  things — which 
are  almost  wholly  made  up  of  a  more  or  less  naked 
living  matter  or  protoplasm — it  is  only  reasonable  for  us 
to  conclude,  until  direct  evidence  can  be  adduced  to  the 
contrary,  that  that  which  holds  good  for  the  many 
without  exception,  may  prove  to  be  a  rule  of  universal 
application.  Therefore  it  was  that  the  commission 
appointed  by  the  Societe  de  Biologic  (and  M.  Pasteur 
himself  for  a  long  time)  assumed  that  none  of  the  lower 
kind  of  organisms  could  survive  in  a  fluid  which  was 
raised  to  a  temperature  of  2i2°F. 

No  evidence  has  as  yet  been  adduced  which  is  capable 
of  shaking  the  validity  of  this  conclusion,  so  that  the 
experiments  just  related  afford  strong  evidence  in  favour 
of  the  view  that  the  organisms  found  in  my  experimental 
fluids  were  there  evolved  de  novo.  Other  experiments 
with  negative  results,  in  the  face  of  these,  cannot  prove 
the  impossibility  of  such  a  mode  of  evolution.  And  yet 
the  experiments  of  Schwann  and  others  were  deemed  by 
many  to  have  conclusively  upset  the  doctrines  of  the 
evolutionists.  The  particular  fluids  with  which  they 
experimented  were  only  exposed  to  a  temperature  of 
2I2°F,  but  they  worked  under  a  set  of  conditions  which, 
are  considered  by  many  to  be  particularly  adverse  to  the 


374  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  . 

occurrence  of  fermentation,  so  that  they  often  found 
no  organisms  when  their  flasks  were  opened.  But  on 
subjecting  other  experimental  fluids  to  the  same  tem- 
perature, though  exposing  them  subsequently  to  quite 
different  conditions — supposed  by  myself  to  be  more 
favourable  for  the  occurrence  of  fermentative  changes 
— I  do  find  organisms  in  the  fluids  when  the  flasks  are 
opened, 

It  must  then  never  be  lost  sight  of  that  the  negative 
results  of  Schwann,  M.  Pasteur,  and  others,  may  be  only 
applicable  to  the  particular  fluids  and  the  particular 
conditions  under  which  they  worked;  but  the  multi- 
tudes of  positive  results  legitimately  obtained  by  myself 
and  other  experimenters,  must  have  a  most  important 
bearing  upon  the  settlement  of  the  general  doctrine. 

As  previously  stated,  M.  Pasteur  himself  for  a  long 
time  obtained  only  negative  results  in  repeating  the 
experiments  of  Schwann.  In  his  earlier  investigations 
he  had  generally  made  use  of  c  Feau  de  levure  sucree,' 
of  urine,  or  of  some  other  fluid  which  was  naturally 
unfitted  to  undergo  fermentative  changes  of  marked 
intensity,  or  even  to  nourish  the  higher  infusorial  organ- 
isms 1.  But  there  came  a  time  when  M.  Pasteur  chanced 

1  Whether  the  organisms  found  in  a  given  fluid  have  been  actually 
produced  therein,  or  have  only  undergone  development  in  it,  we  may, 
for  the  sake  of  argument,  measure  the  evolutional  capacity  of  a  fluid  by 
the  amount  and  kinds  of  organisms  which  are  produced  in  a  given 
quantity  of  it,  in  a  definite  time,  and  at  a  given  temperature.  We  cer- 
tainly must  not  judge  of  the  evolutional  qualities  of  a  fluid  by  its  mere 
tendency  to  emit  a  bad  odour  in  a  short  space  of  time.  A  certain  fluid 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  375 

to  repeat  his  experiments,  using  precisely  the  same  pre- 
cautions as  before,  and  yet  the  results  were  quite 
different — organisms  were  now  found  in  his  solutions. 
There  was  one  important  difference,  it  is  true.  In 
these  latter  experiments,  M.  Pasteur  had  made  use  of 
milk.  Now  the  quantity  of  organic  matter  contained 
in  milk  is,  of  course,  very  great ;  it  is  a  highly  nutritive 
and  complex  fluid.  It  might,  therefore,  and  ought,  per- 
haps, to  have  suggested  itself  to  M.  Pasteur  that  the 
different  results  of  his  later  experiments  were  possibly 
explicable  on  the  supposition  that  the  restrictive  con- 
ditions— the  boiling  of  the  solution,  and  the  closed 
vessel  already  containing  air — were  too  potent  to  be 
overcome  by  the  organic  matter  in  the  one  solution, 
whilst  they  were  not  too  potent,  and  could  not  prevent 
fermentative  changes  taking  place  in  that  of  the  other. 

— urine,  for  instance — judged  by  these  qualities,  may  be  disagreeably 
putrescible,  though  its  evolutional  tendencies  may  be  quite  low.  By 
many  experimenters  this  difference  has  not  been  appreciated,  and  they 
seem  to  imagine  that  in  employing  urine  they  make  use  of  a  fluid  which 
is  very  favourable  for  such  experiments — forgetting,  apparently,  that  urine 
is  an  effete  product  containing  comparatively  stable  compounds,  which 
have  already  done  their  work  in  the  body.  It  may  after  a  short  time 
swarm  with  Bacteria,  and  these  may  be  followed  by  fungi ;  but  there  is 
no  comparison  even  as  to  the  actual  quantity  of  these  organisms,  that 
may  be  developed  in  equal  amounts  of  milk  and  urine  respectively — 
when  both  are  exposed  to  the  air  for  the  same  time  in  similarly- 
shaped  vessels,  and  under  the  same  bell-jar.  The  milk  soon  becomes 
actually  solid  with  fungus  growths.  M.  Pasteur's  '1'eau  de  levfne 
sucree,'  by  his  own  confession  (loc.  cit.  note,  p.  58),  is  never  found  to 
contain  any  of  the  higher  ciliated  infusoria,  and  though  it  produces 
fungi,  they  are  met  with  in  much  smaller  quantity  than  in  an  equal  bulk 
of  milk  under  similar  conditions. 


376  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

For  if,  in  accordance  with  the  belief  of  the  evolutionists, 
different  organic  fluids  have  different  initial  tendencies 
to  undergo  fermentation  (leading  to  the  evolution  of 
living  things),  it  may  be  easily  understood,  that  as  the 
conditions  favourable  to  fermentation  are  more  and  more 
restricted,  certain  of  these  fluids  may  altogether  cease 
to  undergo  such  changes,  others  may  manifest  them  to 
a  meagre  extent,  and  others  still,  only  a  little  more 
fully l.  When  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  one  atmo- 
sphere,, do  we  not  find  that  water  boils  at  cu2°F, 
alcohol  at  1 73°  F,  and  ether  at  96°  F  ?  The  restric- 
tive condition,  or  atmospheric  pressure,  is  here  in 
each  case  the  same,  only,  having  to  do  with  differ- 
ently constituted  fluids,  it  is  natural  enough  to  look  for 
different  results  under  the  influence  of  like  incident 
forces.  Ether  raised  to  a  temperature  of  iooDF  would 
rapidly  disappear  in  the  form  of  vapour,  though  no  such 
result  would  follow  the  heating  of  water  to  the  same 
extent.  And  similarly,  whilst  milk  might  be  capable  of 
yielding  organisms  in  Schwann's  apparatus,  another  fluid 
less  rich  in  organic  matter  might  fail  to  do  so.  It  seems 
almost  incredible  that  such  considerations  should  not 

1  Referring  to  repetitions  of  Spallanzani's  experiments  made  in  conceit 
with  Prof.  Oehl,  Prof.  Cantoni  says  (Gaz.  Med.  Ital.  Lombard,  t.  i. 
1 868) : — '  E  in  fatto,  preparando  diversi  palloni,  egualmente  scaldati  a 
100°,  con  sugo  di  carne  a  vario  grado  di  diluzione,  riconoscemmo  che, 
mentre  in  alcune  s'  aveva  un  pronto  e  ricco  sviluppo  di  infusorj,  in  altre 
esso  era  tardo  e  scarso,  ed  in  altre  ancora  mancava  affatto  ancor  dopo 
molti  giorni  dalla  preparazione.'  And  even  the  strongest  solution  will 
yield  similarly  varying  results,  when  exposed  to  successively  lower  atmo- 
spheric temperatures. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  377 

have  suggested  themselves  to  M.  Pasteur ;  but  yet  we 
have  no  mention  of  them,  or  any  evidence  that  they  had 
been  considered l.    He  explains  the  discrepancy  between 
his  earlier  and  his  later  experiments  by  reference  to  a 
completely  different  supposition,  and,  as  on  other  occa- 
sions, he  does  not  even  suggest  to  the  reader  that  any 
different  explanation   is  possible  from  that  which  he 
adduces.      He  at  once  assumes  that  the  Bacteria   and 
Vibr'tones  which  were  ultimately  found  in  the  milk  used 
in  these  experiments  had  been  derived  from  '  germs '  of 
such  organisms  which  either  preexisted  in,  or  had  ob- 
tained access  to  this  fluid  before  it  had  been  heated, 
and  also  (contrary  to  the  general  rule  which  had  been 
previously  admitted)  he  assumed   that    such  supposed 
preexisting  germs  were  capable  of  resisting  the  influ- 
ence of  the  heat  which  causes  milk  to  boil.     No  direct 
proof  of  the    latter   assumption  was  ever   attempted, 
though  M.  Pasteur  did  afterwards  endeavour  to  bring 
the  cases  in  which  organisms  were    to    be    met  with 
under  a  general  law :  he  supposed  that  the  results  ob- 
tained were  due  to  the  absence  of  acidity  in  the  fluids 
employed.     Neutral    or   slightly  alkaline  fluids  might 
yield  positive   results   in  repeating  Schwann's  experi- 
ments, because,  as  he  alleged,  the  c germs'  of  Bacteria 
and  Vibriones  were  not  destroyed  by  the  temperature  of 
2i2°F  in  such  fluids. 

1  The  experiments  and  reasonings  to  which  I  now  allude  are 
detailed  in  pp.  58-66  of  M.  Pasteur's  Memoir  ('  Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de 
Phys.'  1862). 


378  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Such  was  the  very  definite  statement  made  by  M. 
Pasteur  on  the  faith  of  a  chain  of  evidence  of  which 
almost  every  link  is  ambiguous.  He  did  not  even 
allude  to  the  desirability  of  making  direct  observations 
upon  this  subject.  They  lend  not  the  least  support 
to  his  assumption,  however ;  on  the  contrary,  they  go 
to  confirm  the  rule  which  had  hitherto  been  generally 
admitted,  as  to  the  inability  of  any  of  these  lower 
organisms  to  live  after  an  exposure  for  even  a  few 
seconds  in  a  fluid  raised  to  a  temperature  of  2i2°F. 
I  have  again  and  again  boiled  neutral  and  alkaline 
infusions  containing  very  active  Bacteria  and  Vibriones^ 
and  the  result  has  always  been  a  more  or  less  complete 
disruption  of  the  Vtbriones^  and  the  disappearance  of 
all  unmistakeable  signs  of  life  in  the  Bacteria1.  All 
their  peculiarly  vital  movements  have  at  once  ceased, 
and  it  has  been  shown  by  the  evidence  detailed  in  the 
last  chapter,  that  these .  organisms  and  any  c  germs,' 
visible  or  invisible 2,  by  which  they  multiply,  have  been 
really  killed  by  an  exposure  to  even  a  much  lower 
degree  of  heat. 

1  The  results  with  neutral  hay  infusions  have  not  seemed  to  differ  at 
all  from  those  which  were  obtained  with  slightly  acid  turnip  infusions, 
or  solutions  of  ammonic  tartrate  and  sodic  phosphate.     See  p.  318  and 
p.  33  2,  note  I .   It  seems  a  vague  supposition  to  imagine  that  either  Bacteria 
or  Vibrlones  have  germs  which  are  in  any  way  differently  endowed  from 
themselves.      In  common  with  other  primitive  living  things,  they  are 
only  known  to  multiply  by  fission  or  gemmation.     The  separated  por- 
tions, however  minute,  would  always  resemble  the  parent  structure,  of 
which,  indeed,  they  are  unaltered  fragments. 

2  See  p.  332. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  379 

M.  Pasteur  approached  the  solution  of  the  discrepancy 
in  this  way.  His  attention  was  arrested  by  the  fact 
that  milk  was  an  alkaline  fluid,  because  he  afterwards 
ascertained  that  other  alkaline  fluids  also  yielded  posi- 
tive results  when  submitted  to  the  conditions  involved 
in  Schwann's  experiments.  But  having  satisfied  him- 
self of  this,  it  was  necessary  for  M.  Pasteur  to  offer  some 
explanation,  if  he  was  not  prepared  to  yield  his  assent  to 
the  doctrine  which  he  had  formerly  rejected.  He  soon 
found,  truly  enough,  that  the  mere  alkalinity  or  acidity 
of  the  solution  was  a  matter  of  great  importance  in 
these  experiments;  he  ascertained,  for  instance,  that 
his  sweetened  yeast- water,  naturally  a  faintly  acid  fluid, 
was  always  unproductive  when  submitted  to  Schwann's 
conditions  unaltered,  though  it  was,  on  the  contrary, 
always  productive  if  it  had  previously  been  rendered 
neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
carbonate  of  lime.  Facts  of  this  kind  were  observed  so 
frequently  as  to  make  him  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
whilst  acid  solutions  were  never  productive  in  Schwann's 
apparatus,  any  neutral  or  alkaline  fluids  might  be,  if 
they  were  otherwise  suitable  for  such  experiments. 
Then  came  the  question  as  to  how  this  was  to  be 
explained. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  M.  Pasteur  was  en- 
gaged in  investigating  the  problem  of  the  mode  of 
origin  of  certain  low  organisms  in  organic  fluids,  con- 
cerning which  so  much  controversy  had  taken  place. 
In  this  controversy  hitherto,  it  had  been  contended  on 


380  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

the  one  hand,  that  the  living  things  met  with  derived 
their  origin  from  pre-existing  'germs' that  had  survived 
all  the  destructive  conditions  to  which  the  media  sup- 
posed to  contain  them  had  been  subjected ,  whilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  was  contended  that  if  the  media  had 
been  subjected  to  conditions  which  (by  evidence  the 
most  direct  and  positive)  had  been  shown  to  be  de- 
structive to  the  lowest  living  things,  then  any  such  living 
things  as  were  subsequently  discovered  in  these  fluids 
must  have  been  evolved  de  novo.  It  was  a  question, 
therefore,  on  the  one  hand,  as  to  the  degree  of  c  vital 
resistance'  to  heat  which  might  be  displayed  by  the 
lowest  living  things;  and  on  the  other,  as  to  the 
strength  of  the  tendency  in  the  organic  matter  of  the 
solution  to  undergo  changes  of  a  fermentative  cha- 
racter, coupled  with  the  degree  to  which  this  molecular 
mobility  could  persist  in  spite  of  the  disruptive  agency 
of  the  heat  to  which  the  organic  matter  had  been 
subjected.  Whatever  fluids  arc  employed,  if  after  they 
have  been  boiled  and  exposed  to  a  given  set  of  con- 
ditions, organisms  are  not  found,  their  absence  is 
explicable  in  one  of  two  ways — that  is,  in  accordance 
with  either  of  the  two  opposing  views.  Either  the  heat 
has  proved  destructive  to  all  living  things  in  the  solu- 
tions; or  else  the  restrictive  conditions  to  which  the 
organic  matter  in  these  solutions  has  been  exposed  have 
been  such  as  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  fermentative 
changes.  Any  person  seriously  wishing  to  ascertain  the 
truth,  and  competent  to  deal  with  such  a  subject,  of 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  381 

course,  would  not  fail  to  see  that  he  was  bound  to  give 
equal  attention  to  each  of  these  possibilities.  He  would 
have  no  right  to  aAume  that  the  probabilities  were 
greater  in  favour  of  the  one  mode  of  explanation  than 
they  were  in  favour  of  the  other;  this  was  the  very 
subject  in  dispute — this  it  was  which  had  to  be  proved. 
When,  therefore,  it  was  definitely  ascertained  by  M. 
Pasteur  that  acid  solutions  employed  in  Schwann's  ex- 
periments yielded  negative  results  as  far  as  organisms 
were  concerned,  the  establishment  of  this  fact  was  in 
reality  no  more  favourable  to  the  one  view  than  to  the 
other.  It  is  what  the  panspermatists  might  have  ex- 
pected, it  is  true,  because — regarding  it  only  as  a 
question  of  the  destruction  or  non-destruction  of  germs 
— even  they  had  convinced  themselves  that  calcining 
the  air  and  boiling  the  fluids  were  adequate  to  destroy 
all  living  things  contained  in  these  media.  But  on  the 
other  hand,  it  was  equally  open  to  the  evolutionists  to 
say,  that  the  restrictive  conditions  employed  were  so 
severe  that  they  also  were  not  surprised  at  the  fermen- 
tative changes  being  stopped  and  at  the  consequent 
non-appearance  of  organisms  in  the  solutions.  When 
positive  results  were  obtained,  however,  the  case  be- 
came altogether  different.  The  rule  with  regard  to  the 
inability  of  living  things  to  survive  in  solutions  which 
had  been  raised  to  the  boiling  temperature  for  a  few 
minutes  was  absolute,  so  far  as  it  had  gone,  and  being 
founded  on  good  evidence,  to  which  M.  Pasteur  and 
others  had  assented,  no  one  should  have  attempted  to 


382  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE, 

set  it  aside,  except  upon  evidence  equally  direct  and 
equally  positive,  though  more  extensive  than  that  upon 
which  the  rule  had  been  originally  founded.  Certainly, 
no  one  should  have  attempted  to  set  it  aside  on  the 
strength  of  indirect  evidence,  which,  though  equally 
capable  of  explanation  in  accordance  with  either  one  of 
the  two  opposing  views,  was  tacitly  represented  to  be 
explicable  only  in  accordance  with  one  of  them.  Such, 
however,  was  the  course  pursued  by  M.  Pasteur.  It  will, 
perhaps,  scarcely  be  credited  by  many  that  the  investiga- 
tions of  M.  Pasteur,  which  have  had  so  much  influence, 
and  which  have  been  looked  upon  by  many  as  models  of 
scientific  method,  should  really  contain  such  fallacies. 
On  other  important  occasions,  however,  his  reasoning 
has  been  similarly  defective,  though  he  himself  claimed 
and  was  believed  by  many  to  have  '  mathematically  de- 
monstrated '  what  he  had  so  plausibly  appeared  to  prove. 
In  the  present  case,  after  his  experiments  with  milk 
in  Schwann's  apparatus,  M.  Pasteur  ascertained  that  in 
other  alkaline  or  neutral  fluids,  even  when  they  had 
been  subjected  to  all  the  conditions  above  mentioned, 
inferior  organisms  might  be  found  more  or  less  quickly. 
But  he  also  discovered  that  even  such  solutions  no 
longer  yielded  organisms,  if  instead  of  being  subjected 
to  a  heat  of  2i2°F  they  were  exposed  for  a  few 
minutes  to  a  temperature  of  230°?.  And  it  was  on  the 
strength  of  two  or  three  other  links  of  such  evidence 
as  this  that  M.  Pasteur  sought  to  upset  the  rule  with  re- 
gard to  the  inability  of  inferior  organisms  to  resist  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  383 


destructive  influence  of  a  moist  temperature  of 
On  such  evidence  as  this  he  attempted  to  raise  the 
possible  limit  of  vital  resistance  by  i8°F,  and  sought 
to  establish  the  rule  that  living  organisms  might  survive 
in  neutral  or  alkaline  solutions,  which  had  been  raised 
to  any  temperature  short  of  230°  F.  He  did  not  seem 
to  appreciate  the  fact  that  he  had  less  warrant  for  the 
assumption  that  the  organisms  met  with  in  these  neutral 
or  alkaline  fluids  had  been  derived  from  c  germs  *  which 
had  resisted  the  temperature  of  2i2°F5  than  he  or  his 
opponents  would  have  had  in  falling  back  at  once  upon 
the  counter  assumption,  that  the  evolutional  tendencies 
of  neutral  or  alkaline  fluids  exposed  to  high  temperatures 
were  greater  than  those  of  similar  fluids  when  in  an 
acid  state  l  ;  such  neutral  or  alkaline  fluids  being,  as 
was  now  seen,  capable  of  overcoming  the  restrictive 
conditions  in  Schwann's  experiments  and  of  giving 

1  This  omission  on  the  part  of  M.  Pasteur  is  all  the  more  remarkable 
in  the  face  of  facts  which  must  have  been  well  known  to  such  an  accom- 
plished chemist.  Thus,  Gerhardt  says  ('Chimie  Organique,'  t.  iv.  p. 
547):  —  '  Beaucoup  de  matieres  qui  seules  ou  k  1'etat  humide  ne 
s'oxydent  pas  k  1'air,  eprouvent  une  combustion  dfcs  qu'elles  se  trouvent 
en  contact  avec  un  alcali.  Ainsil'alcoholpur  se  conserve  a  1'air  indenni- 
ment  et  sans  s'aigrir  ;  mais,  si  Ton  y  verse  un  peu  de  potasse,  il  absorbe 
promptement  de  1'oxygene  et  se  convertit  en  vinaigre  et  en  une  matiere 
brune  r^sineuse.  II  est  clair,  d'aprks  cela,  que  la  potasse  doit  favoriser 
certaines  fermentations,  puisqu'elle  favorise  1'absorption  de  I'oxyg&ne  et 
que  la  presence  de  celui-ci  ddveloppe  les  ferments.'  He  also  says  (loc. 
cit.  p.  556)  :  —  '  On  sait,  que  les  viandes  et  les  substances  vdgetales 
mariees  dans  le  vinaigre  sont  preservees  de  la  decomposition,  au  moins 
pour  un  certain  temps  ....  La  plupart  des  acides  produisent  le  meme 
effet  que  le  vinaigre/ 


384  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

birth  to  organisms,  by  permitting  the  occurrence  of 
life-evolving  changes  amongst  the  colloidal  molecules 
contained  therein.  He  had  less  right  to  explain  the 
facts  as  he  did,  than  the  evolutionist  would  have  had  to 
explain  them  as  above  mentioned,  because  in  so  doing 
he  was  attempting  to  upset  previously  admitted  facts 
on  insufficient  evidence,  whilst  the  reasonings  of  the 
evolutionist  would  have  been  in  every  way  legitimate. 
And  yet  M.  Pasteur  left  his  readers  to  imagine  that  the 
explanation  which  he  had  adduced  was  that  which  was 
alone  admissible ;  he  did  not  refer  to  the  existence  of 
any  other  mode  of  explanation,  but  at  once  attempted 
to  set  aside  the  old  rule.  And  similarly,  when  he  as- 
certained that  such  alkaline  or  neutral  fluids  were  no 
longer  found  to  contain  organisms  if  they  had  been 
previously  submitted  to  a  temperature  of  23O0F,  he  was 
entitled  to  draw  no  conclusion  from  such  facts.  Never- 
theless, M.  Pasteur  did  assume  that  such  ambiguous 
evidence  entitled  him  to  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
hypothetical  c germs'  contained  in  these  solutions — 
those  which  were  not  killed,  as  he  supposed  by  a  tem- 
perature of  2i2°F — were  destroyed  by  a  temperature 
of  230°F.  Such  two-faced  evidence  is,  however,  worth- 
less for  raising  the  standard  of  c  vital  resistance ' 
to  heat  j  and  to  ignore  the  possible  differences  which 
may  exist,  from  the  evolutionist's  point  of  view,  be- 
tween acid  and  alkaline  solutions,  as  M.  Pasteur 
did,  is  about  as  reasonable  as  if  he  had  imagined 
that  because  water  does  not  boil  at  the  temperature 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  385 

of  ioo°F,  the  same  rule  must  necessarily  hold  good 
for  ether. 

Much  evidence,  indeed,  can  be  brought  forward  to 
show  that  even  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  under 
conditions  in  which  there  is  a  moderately  free  exposure 
to  the  air  (and  where  there  is  therefore  every  facility 
for  the  entrance  of  germs),  organisms  are  not  only 
found  in  a  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  solution  more 
quickly,  but  they  are  found  to  exist  in  it  in  much 
greater  variety  than  in  solutions  which  are  slightly  acid, 
but  in  other  respects  similar.  Any  of  the  higher  forms 
of  Ciliated  Infusoria  way  appear  in  different  neutral  or 
slightly  alkaline  solutions,  though  they  rarely  if  ever 
present  themselves  in  those  having  an  acid  reaction, 
either  in  a  developed  or  undeveloped  condition — dead 
or  living. 

The  amount  of  difference  that  is  capable  of  being 
produced  by  the  mere  acidity  of  a  solution  was  well 
seen  by  me  a  few  months  ago.  Having  prepared  l  a 
mixture  of  white  sugar  and  ammonic  tartrate,  with 
small  quantities  of  ammonic  phosphate  and  sodic  phos- 
phate in  distilled  water.,  whose  reaction  was  found  to 
be  neutral,  two  similar,  wide-mouthed  bottles,  of  about 
three  ounces  capacity,  were  filled  with  this  fluid.  Both 
were  kept  side  by  side  in  a  tolerably  warm  place,  the 
mouths  of  the  bottles  being  merely  covered  in  each  case 
by  a  piece  of  glass— after  glycerine  had  been  smeared 
over  the  rim  on  which  the  cover  rested.  Although  not 

1  Dec.  23,  1869.     The  weather  being  very  cold  and  frosty. 
C    C 


386  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

hermetically  sealed,  these  solutions  were  thus  sufficiently 
protected,  to  prevent  the  access  of  much  dust  from  the 
neighbouring  fire.  The  fluid  in  one  of  the  bottles  was 
allowed  to  remain  neutral,  whilst  to  that  of  the  other 
four  or  five  drops  of  acetic  acid  were  added,  so  as  to 
make  it  yield  a  faintly  acid  reaction  to  test  paper.  The 
results  were  quite  different  in  the  two  cases.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  fourth  day  the  originally  unaltered  neutral 
solution  began  to  assume  a  cloudy  appearance ;  this  in- 
creased in  amount  during  the  next  day,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  sixth  day  a  thin  pellicle  was  found  on  the  surface, 
and  beneath  it  there  were  some  irregular,  flocculent, 
whitish  masses  buoyed  up  by  small  air  bubbles.  Ex- 
amined microscopically,  the  pellicles  and  also  the 
flocculent  masses  beneath  were  found  to  be  made  up 
of  medium-sized  plastide-particles  and  Bacteria,  mixed 
with  crystals  of  triple  phosphate.  There  were  also 
many  scattered  cells  of  a  Torula,  varying  from  T oW  to 
nnnn/'  ^n  diameter.  By  this  time  (close  of  the  sixth 
day),  however,  the  companion  solution  which  had  been 
slightly  acidified,  had  undergone  scarcely  any  appreciable 
change.  It  was  still  quite  clear  and  transparent,  and 
there  was  no  pellicle  on  the  surface,  though  there  was  a 
very  slight  whitish  flocculent  stratum  at  the  bottom  of 
the  bottle.  Even  on  the  twenty-first  day  this  solution 
continued  in  much  the  same  condition — still  showing 
no  trace  of  a  pellicle.  The  fluid  itself  was  clear,  and 
there  had  been  only  a  very  slight  increase  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  white  flocculent  layer  at  the  bottom  of  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  387 

bottle.  This,  on  microscopical  examination,  was  found 
to  be  made  up  mainly  of  a  granular  matter  having  no 
definite  character  —  though  a  small  number  of  minute 
but  well-formed  Bacteria  were  mixed  with  it.  The 
acid  solution  had  remained  throughout  in  the  same 
warm  place,  but  the  bottle  containing  the  neutral  fluid 
had  not  (after  the  examination  on  the  sixth  day)  been  re- 
placed in  its  original  situation  near  the  fire  :  it  had  con- 
tinued since  this  time  in  a  part  of  the  room  altogether 
away  from  the  fire,  and  yet  when  this  was  also  examined 
on  the  twenty-first  day,  it  was  found  to  present  a  very 
cloudy,  whitish  appearance  throughout.  There  was  also 
a  thick  flocculent  stratum  at  the  bottom,  and  a  very 
consistent,  well-marked  pellicle  on  the  surface  of  the 
fluid,  made  up  almost  entirely  of  large  and  well-formed 
Torula-cells. 

Although  the  results  here  detailed,  as  occurring  in  the 
neutral  and  the  acidified  solutions  respectively,  are  so 
strikingly  different,  still  they  are  by  no  means  singular 
or  peculiar  to  the  particular  kind  of  solution  which  was 
employed  in  this  experiment.  Phenomena  essentially 
similar  in  kind  may  be  observed  when  almost  any  neu- 
tral or  slightly  alkaline  organic  infusion  is  employed. 
I  will  quote  only  one  out  of  many  experiments 
bearing  upon  this  point.  A  short  time  ago,  having 
prepared  a  pretty  strong  infusion  of  mutton,  about  an 
ounce  and  a  half  was  put,  after  filtration,  into  each  of 
two  similar  flasks.  One  portion  of  the  infusion  was 
allowed  to  remain  neutral,  whilst  to  the  other  three 

c  c  2 


388  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

drops  of  strong  acetic  acid  were  added,  so  as  to  make 
the  whole  yield  a  faintly  acid  reaction  to  test  paper. 
The  two  flasks  were  then  exposed  side  by  side  to  a 
temperature  of  75°  to  8o°F  during  the  day.  In  twenty- 
four  hours  the  neutral  solution  was  clouded,  and 
more  or  less  opaque,  whilst  the  portion  which  was 
acid  appeared  perfectly  unchanged.  It  was  as  clear  as 
ever;  and  so  it  continued  even  to  the  end  of  forty-eight 
hours,  although  by  this  time  the  neutral  solution  was 
quite  opaque  and  muddy-looking,  with  a  pellicle  on  its 
surface  and  also  some  flocculent  deposit  at  the  bottom 
of  the  flasL  A  microscopical  examination  of  two  or 
three  drops  of  this  fluid  showed  that  it  was  teeming 
with  plastide-particles,  and  most  actively  moving  Bac- 
teria and  Vifoiones  $  whilst  a  similar  examination  of  the 
acid  fluid,  showed  not  a  trace  of  these  or  of  any  other 
kind  of  organisms  \ 

The  difference  between  the  results  in  these  two  sets 
of  cases  was  thus  extremely  well  marked,  and  the 
results  themselves  are  well  worth  our  serious  attention. 
We  had  to  do  with  equal  bulks  of  fluid,  placed  under 
similar  conditions  and  similarly  constituted,  with  the 
exception  that  in  each  set  a  few  drops  of  acid  bad  been 
added  to  the  one  fluid,  whilst  the  other,  was  allowed  to 
remain  neutral.  And  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the 
difference  encountered  was  very  similar  in  kind  to  that 
which  was  observed  by  M.  Pasteur  when  he  made  use 

1  The  reverse  restilts,  which  may  be  produced  by  neutralising  the 
acidity  of  a  naturally  acid  fluid,  will  be  exemplified  farther  on. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  389 

of  acid,  or  of  neutral  or  alkaline  solutions  respectively, 
in  repeating  the  experiments  of  Schwann.  But  here 
we  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  destructive  agency  of 
heat,  and  germs  were  as  free  to  enter  or  develop  in  the 
one  solution  as  they  were  in  the  other ;  so  that  the 
differences  actually  observed  would  seem  now,  at  all 
events,  simply  due  to  the  different  qualities  of  the 
fluids  themselves.  Of  course  such  results  cannot  be 
adduced  as  evidence  that  the  evolutional  property  of  the 
neutral  solution  was  higher  than  that  of  the  acid  solution. 
It  may  not  be  a  case  of  de  novo  origination  at  all,  but 
simply  one  of  growth  and  development.  The  results, 
however,  show  plainly  enough  that  the  neutral  solu- 
tion was  the  one  most  favourable  to  the  growth  and 
development  of  living  things.  And  if,  starting  from 
this  fact  which  cannot  be  denied,  the  evolutionists  see 
reasons  which  induce  them  to  assume  the  possibility 
that  an  actual  origination  of  living  things  may  have 
taken  place  de  nwo,  in  addition  to  mere  growth  and 
development;  they  would  also  be  likely  to  suppose  that 
the  neutral  fluid  was  more  favourable  to  such  evolution 
than  that  which  had  been  acidified1 — a  supposition  which 

1  Taking  it  only  for  what  it  is  worth,  it  is  at  least  deserving  of 
mention  that  no  reason  seems  assignable  for  the  presence  of  Torula  in 
the  one  saline  solution  and  not  in  the  other.  They  were  both  equally 
exposed  to.  the  advent  of  '  germs.'  It  can  scarcely  be  imagined  that 
the  7V«/a-germs  obtained  access  to  both  solutions,  but  that  they 
perished  in  that  which  was  faintly  acid,  for,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  Torul<z 
are  much  more  frequently  met  with  in  acid  solutions  than  in  those 
which  are  alkaline.  And  for  the  same  reason  one  can  scarcely  imagine 
that  any  germs  of  Torulce  which  preexisted  in  the  fluids  were  unable  to 
develop  in  one  of  them  merely  on  account  of  its  slight  acidity. 


390  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

seems  fully  borne  out  by  facts  already  cited.  The 
solution  which  was  found  favourable  for  the  processes  of 
growth  and  development  might  also,  reasonably  enough, 
be  considered  favourable  for  Archebiosis.  A  process 
would  most  likely  be  initiated  where  the  conditions 
were  suitable  for  its  continuance.  And  surely  the  same 
factors  would  be  at  work  in  the  initiation  of  a  living 
thing  that  would  be  called  into  play  during  its  growth. 
The  presumption,  therefore,  is  a  fair  one,  that  solutions 
which  are  favourable  to  the  growth  and  development 
of  certain  organisms,  may  also  be  favourable  to  the 
occurrence  of  evolutional  changes  which  more  especially 
lead  to  the  initiation  of  such  living  things. 

Seeing,  then,  that  the  question  of  the  occurrence  or 
non-occurrence  of  Archebiosis  is  the  very  matter  in 
dispute,  it  is  certainly  most  imperative  that  all  those 
engaged  in  investigations  bearing  on  the  subject 
should  appreciate  (when  weighing  the  evidence)  that 
these  are  possibilities  whose  probability  ought  to  be 
assumed  as  equal.  We  may  well  be  surprised,  there- 
fore, to  find  such  an  investigator  as  M.  Pasteur  com- 
pletely ignoring  one  of  these  points  of  view,  inter- 
preting all  his  experiments  by  the  light  of  a  foregone 
conclusion,  and  looking  solely  upon  the  different  solu- 
tions employed,  as  fluids  which  are  destructive  or  not 
destructive  at  a  given  temperature  to  hypothetically- 
existing  c  germs.' 

It  should  not  be  understood  that  we  are  to  regard  all 
acid  solutions  as  having  a  low  evolutional  or  fermen- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  391 

tative  tendency.  On  the  contrary,  evidence  has  already 
been  adduced  in  this  chapter  to  show  that  some  acid  solu- 
tions are  most  prone  to  undergo  evolutional  changes  of 
a  certain  kind.  These  do  not  result  in  the  production 
of  living  things  of  a  high  type,  but  rather  in  an  abund- 
ance of  organisms  of  a  comparatively  low  type.  Jt  seems 
to  me,  however,  after  careful  observation  and  experi- 
ment, that  a  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  solution  to  which 
a  few  drops  of  acid  have  been  added  is  almost  always 
found,  after  a  given  time,  to  contain  a  notably  smaller 
number  of  organisms  than  an  equal  bulk  of  the  unaltered 
solution.  And  conversely,  having  an  acid  solution  whose 
productiveness  is  known,  the  number  of  organisms  found 
in  equal  bulks  under  similar  conditions  can  almost 
always  be  notably  increased  in  either  one  of  them  by  the 
mere  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  liquor  potass^,  so  as  to 
render  it  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline.  This,  as  previously 
pointed  out,  may  be  interpreted  as  an  indication  that 
alkalinity  or  neutrality  of  the  fluids  is  more  favourable 
than  their  acidity  for  the  occurrence  of  fermentative 
changes.  And  thus  the  fact  that  organisms  were  never 
met  with  when  an  acid  c  eau  de  levure  sucree '  was  used 
in  repeating  the  experiments  of  Schwann,  though  they 
were  met  with,  on  the  contrary,  in  other  experiments 
where  portions  of  this  same  fluid  had  been  used  which 
had  been  rendered  slightly  alkaline  by  the  addition  of 
chalk,  may  be  explained  without  the  aid  of  that 
supposition  which  alone  seems  to  have  occurred  to 
M.  Pasteur. 


392  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

But,  after  reflection  on  this  subject,  it  seemed  to  me 
quite  within  the  range  of  probability.,  that  the  difference 
between  acid  and  alkaline  solutions  as  regards  the 
number  of  organisms  which  are  to  be  found  in  them, 
when  they  have  been  simply  exposed  to  ordinary 
atmospheric  conditions,  might  be  exaggerated  after  they 
had  been  subjected  to  the  temperature  at  which  water 
boils.  It  seemed  quite  possible  that  high  temperatures 
might  be  more  destructive  to  organic  matter  contained 
in  acid  solutions  than  when  it  existed  in  alkaline 
solutions.  Since  the  acid  seems  to  exercise  a  certain 
noxious  influence  even  at  ordinary  temperatures,  so 
it  may  be  conceived  that  this  influence,  whatever 
its  nature,  may  be  increased  in  intensity  with  the  rise 
of  temperature,  and  with  the  consequent  greater  facility 
for  the  display  of  chemical  affinities.  Hot  acids  will 
frequently  dissolve  metals  which  would  remain  un- 
affected by  them  at  ordinary  temperatures;  and  chemical 
affinities  generally,  are  notably  exalted  by  an  increased 
amount  of  heat.  Since  the  addition  of  an  acid,  there- 
fore, to  a  previously  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  fluid 
containing  organic  matter  in  solution,  appears  to 
alter  its  character  in  some  mysterious  way,  we  may 
assume  that  its  action  upon  the  unstable  organic 
molecules  goes  on  increasing  in  intensity,  as  the  fluid 
becomes  hotter.  Thus,  when  two  portions  of  a  solution 
containing  organic  matter — the  one  neutral  and  the 
other  acid — have  been  raised  to  a  temperature  of  2 1 2°  F, 
the  organic  matter  of  the  one  has  been  injured  only 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  393 

by  the  mere  action  of  heat ;  whilst  that  of  the  other 
solution,  which  has  been  acidified.,  has  not  only  had  to 
submit  to  the  deleterious  influence  of  the  high  tempe- 
rature, hut  also  to  the  increased  activity  of  the  acid 
at  this  temperature.  The  result  would  be  that 
the  amount  of  difference  existing  between  the  two 
solutions  before  they  had  been  heated,  would  be  found 
more  or  less  increased  after  they  had  been  exposed  to 
the  high  temperature,  in  diiect  proportion  to  the 
increase  in  intensity  of  the  action  of  the  acid  produced 
by  such  high  temperature.  What  we  know  concerning 
the  precipitation  of  albumen  in  urine  is  quite  in 
harmony  with  this  view.  When  albumen  is  present, 
and  the  fluid  has  an  alkaline  reaction,  mere  boiling 
does  not  cause  its  precipitation  j  though,  if  the  reaction 
is  acid  ',  the  albumen  present  would  be  precipitated, 
when,  or  even  before  the  temperature  of  the  fluid 
was  raised  to  the  boiling  point.  Or  a  similar  result 
might  have  been  induced  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  acid  to  a  portion  of  a  neutral  or  alkaline 
albuminous  urine,  which  had  just  been  boiled  without 
a  precipitation  of  the  albumen  having  been  brought 
about.  Thus  the  addition  or  presence  of  a  small 
quantity  of  acid,  in  conjunction  with  an  elevated 
temperature,  is  seen  to  be  capable  of  bringing  about 
results  which  cannot  be  produced  by  the  mere  elevated 
tempeiature  alone.  But  the  fact  that  an  isomeric 

1  Provided  this  was  not  due  to  the  presence  of  a  mere  trace  of  nitric 
acid. 


394  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

transformation  of  albumen  can  be  brought  about  in 
this  way — that  albumen  can  be  transformed  so  as  to  be 
no  longer  capable  of  remaining  in  solution — shows  that 
a  molecular  change  has  been  induced  by  the  influence  of 
the  acid  working  at  high  temperatures,  which  neither  the 
acid  nor  the  heat,  working  alone,  are  capable  of  effecting. 
With  the  view  of  throwing  further  light  on  this 
subject,  I  made  the  following  experiment  on  March 
27,  1870:  —  A  tolerably  strong  infusion  of  white 
turnip  was  prepared  and  subsequently  filtered  1.  This 
had  a  decidedly  add  reaction.  It  was  then  divided  into 
two  portions,  one  of  which  was  allowed  to  remain 
unaltered,  whilst  to  the  other  a  few  drops  of  liquor 
potass*  were  added,  so  as  to  give  the  fluid  a  very  faintly 
alkaline  reaction.  This  addition  produced  a  slight 
alteration,  even  in  the  naked-eye  appearance  of  the 
fluid  j  the  faintly  whitish  opalescence  which  formerly 
existed  disappeared,  and  was  replaced  by  an  equally  faint 
brownish  tinge.  About  an  ounce  of  each  of  the  two 
fluids  was  then  placed  separately  in  two  small  flasks. 
The  fluids  were  not  heated  at  all,  but  a  piece  of  paper 
having  been  placed  loosely  in  the  neck  of  each,  so  as  to 
exclude  dust,  they  were  exposed  side  by  side  to  a 
temperature  varying  from  75°  to  85°  F.  After  twenty- 
four  hours 2,  the  unaltered  acid  infusion  merely  showed 

1  The  turnip  at  this  season  of  the  year  was,  however,  very  poor  and 
dry  as  compared  with  that  which  was  employed  in  some  of  my  earlier 
experiments  (Experiments  2-5)  during  the  winter  months. 

2  During  the  whole  of  this  time  the  heat  only  varied  between  the 
limits  mentioned. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  395 

a  more  decided  opalescence  approaching  to  cloudiness ; 
though  that  which  had  been  rendered  faintly  alkaline 
had  a  distinctly  opaque  whitish  colour,  and  there  was 
also  a  distinct  pellicle,  covering  more  than  one-half  of 
the  surface  of  the  fluid.  In  the  three  or  four  succeeding 
days  the  amount  of  opacity,  of  pellicle,  and  of  deposit 
increased  in  both  the  fluids,  though  each  of  these 
continued  to  be  more  manifest  in  the  alkaline  than  in 
the  acid  solution.  After  a  week,  however,  the  difference 
was  scarcely  appreciable,  though  on  the  whole,  for 
about  two  weeks  afterwards,  the  quantity  of  new  matter 
seemed  to  be  greater  in  the  alkaline  than  in  the  acid 
solution. 

But,  on  the  same  morning  that  these  two  portions  of 
the  acid  and  alkaline  infusions  had  been  set  aside  for 
observation,  I  had  placed  with  them  vessels  containing 
two  other  specimens  of  the  same  fluids.  These  had 
been  previously  treated  in  the  following  manner.  The 
acid  and  the  alkaline  fluid  were  placed  in  their  re- 
spective flasks,  and  after  the  necks  of  these  had 
been  drawn  out  the  fluids  were  boiled  for  ten  minutes. 
At  the  expiration  of  this  time,  and  whilst  ebullition 
was  still  continuing,  the  drawn-out  necks  of  the 
flasks  were  hermetically  sealed  in  the  blow-pipe  flame. 
These  experiments  were  undertaken  in  order  to  show,  by 
comparison  with  the  other  two,  whether  the  difference 
produced  by  mere  acidity  or  alkalinity  of  the  solutions 
at  low  temperatures  was  or  was  not  intensified  by  the 
action  of  heat.  The  flasks  were  all  suspended  in  a 


396  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

group  at  the  same  time,  and  were,  thenceforward, 
subjected  to  the  same  temperature.  The  results  were 
as  follows :  After  twenty-four  hours  the  slightly  alkaline 
fluid  which  had  been  boiled  showed  a  slight  though 
decided  opalescence,  it  was,  in  fact,  very  similar  in 
appearance  to  the  acid  solution  which  had  not  been 
boiled.  The  boiled  acid  solution  was,  however,  as 
clear  as  when  the  flask  was  first  suspended,  and  it 
remained  apparently  quite  unaltered,  after  it  had  been 
suspended  a  week ;  though  the  boiled  alkaline  solution 
had  by  this  time  become  decidedly  opaque,  and  also 
showed  some  flocculent  matter  lying  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel.  And  after  they  had  been  suspended  rather 
more  than  three  weeks,  the  acid  solution  still  remained 
almost  transparent,  presenting  only  the  faintest  cloudi- 
ness, though  with  no  pellicle  or  deposit  at  the  bottom1. 
The  boiled  alkaline  fluid,  however,  exhibited  a  totally 
different  appearance ;  it  was  whitish  and  quite  opaque, 
there  was  a  very  thick  pellicle  covering  part  of  its 
surface,  and  also  some  whitish  sediment  at  the  bottom 
of  the  flask. 

Thus  the  difference  which  already  exists  between 
alkaline  and  acid  solutions  at  ordinary  temperatures  was 
seen  to  be  most  notably  intensified  after  similar  alkaline 
and  acid  solutions  have  been  raised  to  a  temperature  of 

1  This  solution  was,  therefore,  much  more  backward  in  exhibiting 
signs  of  change  than  were  the  others  which  had  been  used  in  Experi- 
ments 2  to  5 — a  difference  probably  explicable  by  the  poorer  quality  of 
th£  turnip  used  in  this  last  experiment  (see  p.  394,  note  i). 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  397 

2i2°F.  And  whilst  these  differences  tend  strongly  to 
confirm  the  truth  of  the  mode  of  explanation  which 
I  have  suggested  of  the  discrepancies  observed  by 
M.  Pasteur  when  he  repeated  Schwann's  experiments 
with  acid  and  alkaline  organic  infusions  respectively, 
they  may  also  be  considered  to  strengthen  the  pro- 
babilities in  favour  of  my  assumption  that  an  acid 
fluid  is  less  prone  to  undergo  those  molecular  changes 
which  lead  to  the  evolution  of  living  things,  than 
a  fluid,  otherwise  similar,  whose  reaction  is  neutral 
or  faintly  alkaline.  And  yet,  this  explanation  was 
utterly  ignored  by  M.  Pasteur ;  he  leads  his  readers  to 
believe  that  the  before-mentioned  discrepancies  were 
explicable  only  in  one  way;  and  he  moreover  illogically 
attempted  to  set  aside  a  rule,  concerning  the  limits  of 
c  vital  resistance '  to  different  degrees  of  heat,  to  which 
he  had  previously  assented,  on  the  strength  of  evidence 
which  was  most  ambiguous  and  inconclusive. 

One  finds  M.  Pasteur,  as  a  chemist,  engaging  him- 
self in  a  controversy  concerning  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant questions  in  the  whole  range  of  biological 
science;  and  yet  he  assumes  the  attitude  of  a  man 
who  is  so  convinced  beforehand  of  the  error  of  those 
who  are  of  the  opposite  opinion,  that  he  will  not  abide 
by  ordinary  rules  of  fairness ;  he  will  not  even,  at  first, 
assume  the  possibility  of  the  truth  of  the  opinions  which 
are  opposed  to  his  own.  Ambiguous  evidence  is  ex- 
plained as  though  it  were  not  ambiguous ;  conclusions 
based  upon  good  evidence  are  attempted  to  be  set  aside 


398  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

in  favour  of  conclusions  based  upon  evidence  which  is 
comparatively  worthless  :  and,  by  such  illogical  methods, 
M.  Pasteur  proclaims  that  he  has  c  mathematically 
demonstrated'  the  truth  of  his  own  views.  Un- 
fortunately for  the  cause  of  truth,  many  have  been 
only  too  much  blinded  by  his  skill  and  precision  as  a 
mere  experimenter. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  show  the  incon- 
clusiveness  of  M.  Pasteur's  mode  of  reasoning  on  this 
point,  principally  with  the  view  of  preventing  similar 
deductions  being  drawn  from  observations  and  experi- 
ments of  the  same  nature  by  subsequent  workers.  Other- 
wise it  would  not  have  been  at  all  necessary.  For  so 
far  from  there  being  any  truth  in  M.  Pasteur's  assump- 
tion that  Bacteria  and  their  germs  are  not  killed  in 
slightly  alkaline  or  neutral  fluids  raised  to  a  temperature 
of  2i2°F3  we  have  found  that  experiment  and  observa- 
tion alike  seem  to  show  that  they  are  killed  when 
such  fluids  are  raised  for  two  or  three  minutes  to  a 
temperature  of  140°  F.  Nay,  more,  taking  M.  Pasteur 
even  upon  his  own  ground — using  boiled  acid  infusions, 
in  which  he  admits  that  all  germs  of  preexisting  life 
are  killed — we  find,  nevertheless,  as  others  have 
found,  that  such  infusions,  contained^  within  heated 
and  hermetically-sealed  flasks,  will  speedily  become 
turbid,  owing  to  the  presence  of  multitudes  of  living 
organisms. 

There  being  no  valid  reasons,  therefore,  for  our  belief 
in  the  assumption  that  Bacteria,  Vibriones,  and  their 


THE  BEGINNINGS   OF  LIFE.  399 

germs,  are  not  killed  in  slightly  alkaline  or  neutral 
solutions  which  have  been  boiled,  very  many  of  the 
experiments  of  M.  Pasteur  with  such  fluids  may  be  cited 
amongst  many  others  by  Schwann,  Mantegazza,  Pou- 
chet,  Joly,  Musset,  Wyman,  Hughes  Bennett,  Child, 
Cantoni,  and  other  experimenters,  in  addition  to  those 
recorded  in  the  present  work,  as  testifying  to  the 
reality  of  the  process  of  Archebiosis,  and  to  the  erro- 
neousness  of  the  doctrines  concerning  Fermentation, 
of  which  he  is  the  advocate. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PHYSICAL   AND   VITAL   THEORIES   OF   FERMENTATION. 

Questions  as  to  Cause  of  Fermentation  and  Origin  of  Life  intimately 
associated.  Pasteur's  researches  undertaken  to  establish  a  '  vital 
theory '  of  Fermentation.  Fermentable  substances  and  Ferments. 
Nature  of  latter.  Doctrine  of  Liebig  and  others.  Influence  of  the 
discovery  of  the  yeast-plant.  Vital  theories  of  Schwann,  Pasteur, 
and  others.  Upholders  of  Physical  theory  admit  the  facts  of  the 
Vitalists.  Interpretations  of  latter  too  narrow.  Pasteur's  experi- 
ments inconclusive  in  themselves.  His  conclusions  wider  than 
were  legitimate.  Vital  theory  opposed  to  known  facts.  Manu- 
facture of  Vinegar.  Continuous  series  of  chemical  changes  in  dead 
muscle.  Transformation  of  starch  into  glucose.  Communicability 
of  molecular  movements  No  line  of  demarcation  between  fer- 
mentative and  non-fermentative  chemical  changes.  Two  degrees  of 
fermentability.  Oxygen  not  always  the  primttm  movens  in  Fermen- 
tations. Action  of  diminished  pressure  in  some  cases.  Preserva- 
tion of  Meats.  Differences  between  these  processes  and  my 
experiments.  Observations  of  Gruithuisen.  Reconciliation  of 
results.  Conclusions. 

THE  lower  organisms  being  so  very  frequently  met 
with  in  fermenting  fluids,  and  being  Invariably 
present  in  some  of  them,  it  so  happens  that  the  problem 
as  to  the  cause  of  fermentation  has  come  to  be  in- 
separable from  the  question  as  to  the  possibility  of  the 
de  novo  origin  of  living  things.  Thus  it  is  that  the 
most  important  problem  in  biology  is  one  towards  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  401 

solution  of  which  many  distinguished  chemists  have 
been  induced  to  devote  much  time  and  labour.  The 
ground  is  in  fact  common  to  biologists  and  chemists, 
and  the  question  is  so  obscure  and  difficult  that  it 
stands  much  in  need  of  the  double  illumination. 
Important,  however,  as  are  the  considerations  which  the 
chemist  brings  towards  its  solution,  and  valuable  as  are 
the  methods  which  he  employs,  the  problem  is,  never- 
theless, so  all-important  in  its  biological  aspects  that 
it  cannot  with  advantage  be  wholly  relegated  to  him. 

M.  Pasteur  frankly  tells  us  that,  having  formed  cer- 
tain views  concerning  the  cause  of  fermentations  in 
general,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  come  to  an 
opinion  c  sur  les  questions  des  generations  spontanees/ 
And  here  some  words  of  explanation  seem  needed,  in 
order  to  show  more  fully  how  the  two  problems  are 
so  inseparably  related,  and  as  well  that  the  reader 
may  comprehend  the  nature  of  the  doctrines  which  are 
held  by  many  other  chemists,  in  opposition  to  those  of 
M.  Pasteur. 

We  are  now  becoming  better  acquainted  with  a  set  of 
remarkable  changes  that  certain  compound  substances 
are  apt  to  undergo,  and  which  have  usually  been  known 
by  the  generic  name  of  '  Fermentations  V  The  prevail- 
ing opinion  had  been  that  for  the  occurrence  of  such  a 

1  Those  which  are  accompanied  by  the  evolution  of  foetid  gases  (see 
p.  266,  note  O  have  usually  been  spoken  of  as  putrefactions.  The  old 
view  of  Mitscherlich  ('Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.'  xlviii.  p.  126)  was  that 
'  fermentation  is  caused  by  a  plant  organism,  and  putrefaction  by  an 
animal  organism.'  No  such  distinction  can,  however,  be  drawn. 

D    d 


402  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

process  two  things  are  necessary :  in  the  first  place,, 
there  must  be  a  fermentable  substance — a  body  capable  of 
undergoing  chemical  change — and,  in  the  second  place, 
there  must  be  &  ferment,  or  substance  capable  of  initiat- 
ing such  a  change.  According  to  MM.  Pelouze  and 
Fremy,  c  the  decomposition  of  organic  substances  under 
the  influence  of  a  body  which  acts  only  by  its  mere  pre- 
sence is  called  fermentation.'  What,  then,  is  the  nature 
of  the  ferment  ?  It  has  generally  been  regarded  as  some 
nitrogenous  substance,  belonging  to  the  albumenoid  type, 
though  subject  to  much  variation  in  actual  composition. 
Gerhardteven  says  that  ca  ferment  is  not  a  bodysu?  generis, 
but  rather  any  substance  in  a  state  of  decomposition.' 

In  the  opinion  of  some  chemists  —  followers  of 
Gay-Lussac — the  mere  presence  of  the  ferment  in  com- 
pany with  the  fermentable  substance  is  not  sufficient. 
Even  its  activity  must  be  excited  before  it  can  act 
upon  the  fermentable  substance:  a  result  generally 
brought  about  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  contained  in 
the  air  with  which  the  ferment  is  in  contact *.  But 
according  to  other  chemists — and  more  especially  to 
Liebig2— it  is  only  necessary  to  have  a  body  which 
decomposes,  perhaps  spontaneously,  in  the  presence  of 
another  (fermentable  substance)  whose  elements  are 
held  together  by  a  feeble  affinity.  The  more  change- 
able substance,  by  virtue  of  its  own  inherent  instability, 

1  So  that,  as  Gerhardt  says,  '  L'oxygbne  de  1'air,  comme  nous  1'avons 
<djt,  est  done  le  primum  movens  des  fermentations.'     Loc.  cit.  p.  540. 
9  '  Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,'  2nd  serie,  t.  Ixxi.  p.  1 78. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  403 

may  initiate  molecular  movements  in  even  a  large 
amount  of  a  less  unstable  substance  with  which  it  is 
brought  into  contact ;  and  to  this  latter  set  of  changes  the' 
name  c fermentation'  is  applied.  Liebig's  explanation  of 
this  process,  which  is  accepted  by  Gerhardt  and  many 
other  chemists,  is  thus  described  in  Gerhardt's  Ckimie 
Organise1: — c  Every  substance  which  decomposes  or 
enters  into  combination  is  in  a  state  of  movement — its 
molecules  being  agitated;  but  since  friction,  shock, 
mechanical  agitation,  suffice  to  provoke  the  decompo- 
sition of  many  substances  (chlorous  acid,  chloride  of 
nitrogen,  fulminating  silver),  there  is  all  the  more 
reason  why  a  chemical  decomposition,  in  which  the 
molecular  agitation  is  more  complete,  should  produce 
similar  effects  upon  certain  substances.  In  addition, 
bodies  are  known  which,  when  alone,  are  not  decom- 
posed by  certain  agents,  but  which  are  attacked  when 
they  exist  in  contact  with  other  bodies,  incapable  of 
resisting  the  influence  of  these  agents.  Thus  platinum 
alone  does  not  dissolve  in  nitric  acid,  but  when  allied 
with  silver,  it  is  easily  dissolved;  pure  copper  is  not 
dissolved  by  sulphuric  acid,  but  it  does  dissolve  in  this 
when  it  is  allied  with  zinc,  Sec.  According  to  M. 
Liebig  it  is  the  same  with  ferments  and  fermentable 
substances;  sugar,  which  does  not  change  when  it  is 
quite  alone,  changes — that  is  to  say,  ferments — when  it 
is  in  contact  with  a  nitrogenous  substance  undergoing 
change,  that  is,  with  a  ferment.' 

1  Tom.  iv.  p.  539. 
P  d  2 


404  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

But  since  the  discovery  by  Cagniard-Latour  and 
Schwann,  in  1836,  of  the  yeast-plant,  which  invariably 
reveals  itself  during  the  vinous  fermentation;  and 
since  the  recognition  of  the  existence  of  a  similar 
relationship  between  other  fermentations  and  other 
organisms,  there  have  always  been  persons  who  have 
inclined  to  the  notion  that  the  associated  organism 
was  the  actual  cause  of  the  fermentation  itself.  For 
three  or  four  years  after  the  discovery  of  the  yeast- 
plant,  it  was  warmly  advocated  by  Cagniard-Latour, 
Turpin,  Mitscherlich,  and  others,  that  living  organisms 
alone  were  capable  of  initiating  the  changes  known 
as  fermentations — that  they,  in  fact,  were  the  only 
true  ferments.  According  to  the  notions  of  Liebig, 
Gerhardt,  and  others,  fermentations  are  separated  by 
no  hard  and  fast  line  from  chemical  changes  in  general ; 
here,  however,  a  limitation  was  sought  to  be  established ; 
a  hard  and  fast  line  was  to  be  drawn,  and  fermentations 
were  to  be  supposed  to  differ  from  chemical  changes  in 
general,  by  the  fact  that  they  could  only  be  initiated 
by  the  presence  and  influence  of  living  organisms. 
Such  a  limitation  seemed  of  itself  to  necessitate  the 
supposition  that  the  chemical  changes  occurring  in 
living  things  were  wholly  different  from  all  other  che- 
mical changes — that  the  changes,  in  fact,  constituting 
fermentations  were  initiated  by  occult  c  vital '  influ- 
ences.' This  is  the  doctrine  which  M.  Pasteur  has 
revived,  and  which  he  has  sought  to  establish  upon  a 
firm  foundation.  He  says: — cje  trouvais  que  toutes 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  405 

les  fermentations  proprement  elites,  visqueuse,  lac- 
tique,  butyrique,  la  fermentation  de  1'acide  tartarique, 
de  1'acide  malique,  de  1'uree  .  .  .  .  ,  etaient  toujours 
correlatives  de  la  presence  et  de  la  multiplication 
d'etres  organises.  Et,  loin  que  1'organisation  de  la 
levure  de  biere  fut  une  chose  genante  pour  la  theorie 
de  la  fermentation.,  c'etait  par  la  au  contraire,  qu'elle 
rentrait  dans  la  loi  commune,  et  qu'elle  etait  le  type 
de  tous  le  ferments  proprement  dits»  Selon  moi,  les 
matieres  albuminoides  n'etaient  jamais  des  ferments, 
mais  1'aliment  des  ferments.  Les  vrais  ferments  etaient 
des  etres  organiseV  (Loc.  cit.  p.  23.) 

Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  there  are  two  principal 
doctrines  as  to  the  nature  of  a  '  ferment,'  each 
having  its  several  supporters  •  so  that  two  distinct 
theories  of  fermentation  at  present  divide  the  world 
of  chemists.  Some  now  believe  in  the  exclusive  view 
resuscitated  by  M.  Pasteur1,,  that  (T)  all  ferments  are 
living  organisms — these  being  upholders  of  what  may 
be  called  a  c  vital  theory  of  fermentation ; '  whilst 
others  maintain  (2)  that  certain  not-living  albumenoid 
substances  are  also  capable  of  acting  as  ferments,  so 
that  they  may  be  classed  as  believers  in  a  c  physical 
theory  of  fermentation.'  Of  those  who  maintain  the 
latter  opinion,  the  great  majority  believe  with  Gay- 
Lussac,  that  the  presence  of  oxygen  is  necessary  in 
order  to  arouse  the  activity  of  the  ferment ;  though  my 

1  Liebig  says  : — '  It  is  impossible  to  detect  any  fundamental  difference 
between  the  views  of  Turpin  and  those  of  Pasteur.' 


466  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

own  experiments1  tend  to  show  that  a  ferment  may 
begin  to  operate,  independently  of  the  disturbing  in- 
fluence of  oxygen,  so  long  as  other  conditions  are 
favourable  for  the  initiation  of  molecular  movements 
amongst  its  delicately-balanced  constituent  elements. 

In  reference  to  the  doctrine  revived  by  M.  Pasteur, 
that  all  ferments  are  living  organisms,  it  should  be 
clearly  understood  that  those  who  reject  this  notion 
by  no  means  deny  the  almost  invariable  association  of 
organisms  with  some  fermentations.  They  maintain 
however  that  other  real  fermentations  exist  with  the 
occurrence  of  which  organisms  are  not  associated;  and 
that  in  all  those  fermentations  in  which  organisms 
are  encountered,  these  are  concomitant  formations  or 
results,  rather  than  causes  of  the  fermentative  changes. 
The  facts  cited  by  Pasteur,  even  granting  that  his  state- 
ments are  perfectly  correct,  are  obviously  open  to  a 
double  interpretation.  Although  it  is  true  that  such 
constant  association  of  particular  organisms  with  par- 
ticular fermentations  would  occur  if  the  changes  in 
question  were  initiated  by  pre-existing  omnipresent 
organisms,  some  of  which  found  in  each  fermentable 
substance  a  nidus  suitable  for  their  development  and 
multiplication;  still  the  same  constancy  of  association 
ought  also  to  occur  if  the  changes  which  initiated  the 
process  of  fermentation  were  purely  chemical  in  nature, 
and  led  to  the  evolution  of  living  things  as  concomitant 

1  In  addition  to  those  detailed  in  the  last  Chapter,  they  are  recorded 
in  Chapters  xii.  and  xiii.,  and  in  Appendix  C. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  407 

results.  The  same  substance  would  decompose  in  the 
same  way  on  different  occasions,  if  placed  under  the  in- 
fluence of  similar  conditions,  so  that  if  certain  kinds  of 
organisms  arose  de  novo  on  any  occasion  during  the 
occurrence  of  such  changes,  similar  organisms  ought 
also  to  be  produced  whenever  these  changes  were  re- 
peated. Therefore,  whether  the  organisms  which  are 
undoubtedly  to  be  met  with  in  association  with  certain 
fermentations  are  to  be  regarded  as  causes  or  as  conco- 
mitant results,  is  a  question  which  can  only  be  settled 
by  having  recourse  to  experiment.  If  living  things  are 
shown  to  be  capable  of  arising  de  no<vo,  then  the  doctrine 
that  fermentations  cannot  be  initiated  without  the 
agency  of  living  things  must  receive  its  death-blow. 

M.  Pasteur  did  appeal  to  experiment  to  support  him 
in  maintaining  this  particular  doctrine  of  fermentation, 
which,  as  the  reader  should  not  forget,  is  repugnant  to  the 
teachings  of  many  chemists  equally  eminent  with  himself. 
We  have  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  experimental 
evidence  on  which  M.  Pasteur  relies  in  support  of  his 
doctrine  is  insufficient  and  inconclusive — nay,  more, 
that  many  other  careful  experimenters,  who  have  no 
theory  whatever  to  support,  have  failed  to  get  results 
similar  to  those  which  he  has  recorded.  We  have,  more- 
over, attempted  to  explain  why  his  own  results  cannot 
fairly  receive  the  interpretation  that  he  has  applied  to 
them.  Thus,  not  only  has  M.  Pasteur  been  unable  to 
establish  his  point  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the 
relation  existing  between  organisms  and  those  ferment- 


408  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

ations  with  which  they  are  undoubtedly  associated,  but 
it  may  fairly  enough  be  said  that  he  is  the  advocate  of 
a  doctrine  which  is  irreconcilable  with  many  other 
facts  generally  admitted  by  chemists,  and  of  one  which 
is  thought  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  of  them  to  be 
adverse  to  the  best  chemical  knowledge  of  the  day. 
They  hold  the  opinion  (i)  that  fermentations  cannot 
be  definitely  and  sharply  discriminated  from  other 
chemical  changes  not  usually  placed  in  this  category ; 
and  (2)  that  amongst  those  chemical  changes  which  are 
generally  considered  to  be  real  fermentations,  there  are 
some  whose  occurrence  is  not  necessarily  associated 
with  the  presence  of  organisms. 

If  fermentative  changes  were,  in  reality,  only  to  be 
brought  about  through  the  agency  of  living  organisms  or 
particles,  how  could  we  then  account  for  the  fact  that 
precisely  such  changes  as  are  effected  occasionally  when 
the  influence  of  living  particles  might  be  predicated, 
are  at  other  times  occasioned  when  no  such  predication 
is  tenable  ?  Thus,  although  pancreatin  and  pepsine 
convert  starch  into  sugar,  a  precisely  similar  change 
may  be  brought  about  by  dilute  sulphuric  acid;  and 
although  saliva  or  emulsin  may  cause  a  breaking-up 
or  fermentation  of  salicine,  here  again  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  is  capable  of  effecting  a  similar  change. 

To  take  another  instance,  the  production  of  acetic 
acid  is  due  to  a  process  of  fermentation,  in  which 
alcohol  is  first  converted  into  aldehyde  and  then  into 
the  acid  in  question.  This  fermentative  change, 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  409 

according  to  M.  Pasteur,  is  brought  about  by  a  living 
organism,  the  vinegar-plant  (Mycoderma  aceti) ;  but,  as 
we  are  reminded  by  Baron  Liebig,  acetic  acid  may 
be  similarly  derived  from  alcohol  through  the  agency 
of  finely-divided  platinum.,  as  was  first  pointed  out 
by  Dobereiner.  The  finely-divided  platinum  has  the 
power — and  many  organic  substances  have  a  similar 
property — of  absorbing  oxygen  from  the  air,  and 
bringing  it  into  a  condition  in  which  it  can  unite  with 
other  substances  with  which  it  would  not  otherwise  enter 
into  combination  at  low  temperatures.  So  that,  when 
alcohol  is  subjected  to  the  influence  of  finely-divided 
platinum,  it  is  first  converted  into  aldehyde,  owing 
to  the  oxidation  of  its  hydrogen,  whilst  aldehyde, 
by  a  further  oxidation,  is  converted  into  acetic  acid. 
And,  according  to  Liebig,  the  method  introduced  by 
Schutzenbach  in  1823,  ^or  ^e  manufacture  of  vinegar, 
is  based  upon  this  theory.  He  says1: — cln  this 
operation  wood  shavings  or  fragments  of  charcoal  are 
used  for  determining  the  oxidation.  At  one  of  the 
largest  vinegar  factories  in  Germany,  the  dilute  alcohol 
receives  no  admixture  during  the  whole  operation ; 
besides  air,  and  wood  shavings,  or  charcoal,  there  is  no 
other  substance  concerned,  and  the  fresh  supply  of 
dilute  alcohol  is  only  mixed  with  a  little  of  the 
unfinished  vinegar  from  a  previous  operation.  The 
proprietor  of  these  works,  Hy.  Riemerschmied,  sent  me 

1   On   Acetic  Fermentation,  translated  in  '  Pharmaceutical   Journal,' 
Aug.  13,  1870,  p.  124. 


'410  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

some  of  the  beech-wood  shavings  which  had  been  used 
uninterruptedly  for  twenty-five  years ;  and  in  reply  to 
my  enquiry  whether  the  Mycoderma  aceti  took  part  in 
the  production  of  vinegar,  he  states  that,  so  far  as 
can  be  seen,  the  shavings  that  have  been  thirty  years 
in  use  are  quite  free  from  the  fungus1.'  Although, 
therefore,  the  vinegar-plant  is  capable  of  causing  the 
conversion  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid,  this  conversion 
can  be  otherwise  achieved  without  the  intervention  of 
a  living  organism.  The  process  is  one  of  oxidation 
merely,  so  that  even  when  it  does  take  place  by  the 
agency  of  the  vinegar-plant,  the  effective  action  is  in 
all  probability  none  the  less  purely  chemical  in  nature 2. 
Baron  Liebig  says  : — c  Analyses  of  the  air  discharged 
from  the  vessels  where  the  vinegar  is  made,  show  that 
the  oxygen  consumed  in  the  oxidation  of  alcohol  is 
taken  from  the  air,  so  that  the  only  part  taken  by 

1  It  appears,  however,  that  'the  production  of  the  fungus  is  a  continual 
source  of  hindrance   in   factories  where   beer-wort  is  used  [instead  of 
dilute  alcohol],  since  the  interstices  of  the  wood  shavings  are  gradually 
stopped  up  by  its  growth,  and  thus  free  circulation  of  air  is  prevented 
so  far  as  to  stop  the  formation  of  vinegar.' 

2  The  Mycoderma  aceti  is,  also,  only  an   occasional   instrument  in 
bringing  about  the  acetous  fermentation  ;  it  is  not  a  necessary  concom- 
itant, as  yeast-cells  seem  to  be  of  the  vinous  fermentation.     The  acetic 
fermentation   may  occur   without    the   presence   of  the  vinegar-plant, 
though  the  vinous  fermentation  never  occurs  without  the  appearance  of 
yeast.     When  produced,  yeast  is,  as  we  all  know,  capable  of  initiating 
the  vinous  fermentation  in   other  suitable  liquids,  though  the  vinous 
fermentation  is  also  capable  of  originating  without  the  influence  of 
pre-existing  yeast.     In  fermentations  which  commence  in  this  way  yeast 
arises  de  novo,  as  one  of  the  results  of  the  process.      (See  Pouchet's 
'  £fouvelles  Experiences,'  Paris,  1864,  pp.  190-192.) 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  411 

the  vinegar  plant  in  the  process  is  that  of  determining 
the  absorption  of  oxygen ;  it  is  active  only  in  virtue  of 
this   chemical   property,  and  it  can   be  replaced  by  a 
large  number  of  dead  materials  or  parts  of  plants/ 

Again,  in  a  continuous  series  of  chemical  changes, 
why  should  an  arbitrary  division  be  made  ?    Why  should 
some  changes,  which  are  admitted  to  be  c  spontaneous,' 
be  artificially  separated  from  others,  when  these  latter 
follow  in   an  uninterrupted  sequence  ?     Baron  Liebig 
says  * : — c  From  the  moment  that  a  piece  of  muscle  is 
separated   from   the    living  body  it  begins  to  undergo 
alteration ,    after  some  hours  it   acquires   an  alkaline 
reaction;  the  coagulable  substances  are  coagulated,  the 
contents  of  the  muscular  tubes  become  more  solid  and 
acquire  a  clouded  appearance,  with  a  thickish  consist- 
ence.     The  muscle  contracts   and    thickens,  or   rigor 
mortis  takes  place ;  then,  after  some  time,  the  stiffness 
ceases,  the  acidity  augments,  and  offensively-smelling 
products  make  their  appearance.  ...   .  .  If  organized 

ferments  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  formation  of  the 
first  products  that  appear  in  the  muscles  up  to  the 
occurrence  of  rigor  mortis — and  I  believe  there  is  no 
physiologist  who  thinks  they  have — then  it  is  difficult 
to  understand  how  the  further  alterations  can  be  de- 
termined by  them.' 

The  transformation  of  starch  into  glucose  by 
the  agency  of  sulphuric  acid,  to  which  we  have 
already  referred,  is  a  process  that  cannot  logically  be 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  123. 


412  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

separated  from  the  fermentations;  whilst  the  change 
which  occurs  when  sugar  is  added  to  a  mixture  of 
yeast  and  dextrine,  is  probably  no  less  truly  chemical 
in  nature,  even  though  a  living  organism  does  take 
part  in  the  process.  A  solution  of  dextrine  does  not 
undergo  fermentation  when  it  is  mixed  with  beer-yeast 
alone;  though,  when  a  certain  quantity  of  sugar  is 
added  to  the  mixture,  a  great  part  of  the  dextrine  shares 
the  same  fate  as  the  sugar  itself,  and  is  converted  into 
alcohol  and  carbonic  acid.  c  In  this  case,'  Liebig  says, 
c  the  influence  of  the  motion  communicated  to  the  sugar 
atoms  by  the  action  of  the  yeast  appears  very  evidently 
to  have  been  extended  to  the  dextrine  upon  which  yeast 
itself  has  no  action.'  Facts  like,  these — and  many 
others  which  might  be  mentioned,  showing  how  the 
different  kinds  of  fermentation  are  influenced  and 
modified  by  the  presence  of  different  chemical  sub- 
stances— lead  most  strongly  to  the  conclusion  that 
fermentations  are  themselves,  in  essence,  nothing  more 
than  definite  processes  of  chemical  change  which 
certain  complex  bodies  are  apt  to  undergo,  either  by 
virtue  of  their  own  inherent  instability,  or  by  reason  of 
the  action  upon  them  of  other  bodies  (ferments)  which 
are  at  the  time  in  a  state  of  molecular  flux,  or  motor-decay. 
Such  processes  are,  moreover,  separated  by  no  well- 
defined  line  from  other  chemical  changes.  It  can  no 
longer  be  maintained  that  they  are  chemical  processes 
which  are  only  capable  of  being  initiated  by  the 
contact-influence  of  the  changes  taking  place  in  living 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  413 

things.  Observation  and  experiment  alike  are  abso- 
lutely opposed  to  such  a  limitation.,  and  even  had  it  not 
already  been  shown  to  be  utterly  erroneous,  it  is  a 
doctrine  which  ought  only  to  have  found  favour .  with 
those  who  are  professed  c  vitalists.'  Consistent  believers 
in  the  physical  doctrine  of  life  could  scarcely  be  expected 
to  do  other  than  mistrust  a  doctrine  which  would  have 
them  believe  either  that  the  molecular  changes  taking 
place  in  living  things  were  not  essentially  chemical  in 
nature,  or  else  that  they  were  chemical  changes  absolutely 
sui  generis.  It  would  be  almost  impossible,  indeed,  to 
frame  a  true  and  distinctive  definition  of  fermentative 
changes.  Just  as  we  have  previously  urged,  that  the 
living  thing  differs  from  the  not-living  thing  in  degree 
and  not  in  kind,  since  the  properties  of  both  are  de- 
pendent upon  their  molecular  composition  and  structure  • 
so  does  the  fermentative  chemical  change  differ  from 
the  not-fermentative  chemical  change  merely  in  degree 
— though  even  to  a  less  extent,  because  these  two  kinds 
of  chemical  change  are  now  actually  known  to  merge 
almost  insensibly  into  one  another.  It  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  say  where  the  one  ends  and  the  other  begins. 

As  we  have  already  intimated,  in  the  opinion  of 
Gay-Lussac  and  also  of  many  chemists  in  the  pre- 
sent day,  oxygen  is  needed  to  initiate  the  changes 
'which  the  ferment  undergoes.  According  to  Baron 
Liebig,  however,  all  that_  is  essential  in  order  that 
fermentation  may  occur,  is  that  a  complex  substance 
should  undergo  changes  of  a  particular  kind,  either 


414  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

by  reason  of  its  own  instability,  or  on  account  of  the 
greater  instability  of  some  more  mobile  substance  with 
which  it  is  brought  into  contact.  He  says: — cMany 
organic  compounds  are  known  which  undergo,  in 
presence  of  water,  alteration  and  metamorphosis  having 
a  certain  duration,  and  ultimately  terminating  in  putre- 
faction; while  other  organic  substances  that  are  not 
liable  to  such  alterations  by  themselves,  nevertheless 
suffer  a  similar  displacement  or  separation  of  their 
molecules  when  brought  into  contact  with  the  former  V 

1  '  Pharm.  Journal,'  1870.  This  statement  is  illustrated  by  Gerhardt 
when  he  says  ('Chimie  Organique,'  t.  iv.  p.  474): — 'En  presence  de 
1'eau,  le  gluten  s'altere  continuellement ;  si  on  le  delaye  dans  1'eau  et 
qu'on  1'abandonne  dans  cet  e"tat  k  la  temperature  ordinaire,  il  se  gonfle 
peu  k  peu  en  de"gageant  beaucoup  de  gaz  acide  carbonique  melange 
d'hydrogene  non  carbone,  et  d'hydrogene  sulfure  ;  en  merne  temps  il  se 
ramollit  et  se  fluidifie  entitlement ;  1'eau  qui  le  recouvre  devient  alors 
acide,  et  contient  de  la  leucine,  du  phosphate  et  de  I'ace'tate  d'ammoni- 
aque ;  finalement  le  gluten  se  fonce  de  plus  en  plus  et  se  dissout  presque 

entitlement Pendant  les  differentes  phases  de  sa  transformation 

le  gluten  possede  la  propriete  d'agir  comme  fermente  a  la  maniere  des 
autres  substances  albuminoides.  Avant  de  subir  lui-meme  la  ferment- 
ation putride,  il  possede  la  propriete'  de  faire  subir  une  metamorphose 
remarquable  k  la  matiere  amylacee.  En  effet  lorsqu'on  ajoute  de  la 
farine  de  ble  a  de  1'empois  d'amidon  delaye"  dans  1'eau  et  qu'on  expose 
ce  melange,  pendant  quelques  heures,  k  une  temperature  de  60  a  70°  C, 
il  perd  sa  consistence,  se  fluidifie,  et  finalement  devient  entierement 
sucre ;  la  matiere  amylacee  se  trouve  alors  convertie  soit  en  dextrine,  soil 
en  glucose.'  It  should  be  observed  that  the  temperature  at  which  this 
change  takes  place,  60-70°  C  (i4O°-i58°F),  precludes  the  possibility 
of  its  being  brought  about  by  living  organisms,  since  Bacteria  and 
TorultB  are  uniformly  killed  by  exposure  for  a  few  minutes  to  a  tem- 
perature of  i4O°F.  The  recent  researches  of  Hoppe-Seyler  (' Med. 
Chem.  Unters,'  1871,  pp.  557-581),  also  show  that  living  ferments  are 
killed  by  temperatures  which  do  not  destroy  the  virtues  of  dead  ferments. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  415 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  oxygen  may  be  the 
initiator  of  the  molecular  change  which  the  fer- 
mentable substance  or  the  ferment  undergoes;  it 
would  seem  scarcely  probable,  however,  that  in  the 
absence  of  free  oxygen,  no  other  conditions  would  be 
adequate  to  disturb  the  delicate  balance  existing  be- 
tween the  elements  of  a  highly  unstable  substance. 

In  considering  such  a  subject  it  is  of  great  import- 
ance always  to  bear  in  mind  the  various  degrees  of 
molecular  mobility  of  different  substances,  and  also  the 
fact  that  some  substances  will  easily  decompose  under 
the  influence  of  conditions  which  do  not  affect  other 
compounds  of  equal  complexity.  Individual  differences 
or  peculiarities  cannot  be  ignored.  Under  the  influence 
of  any  particular  set  of  conditions,  therefore,  organic 
substances  may  be  ranged  under  two  distinct  categories, 
with  respect  to  their  degree  of  fermentability.  Substances 
which  are  to  be  placed  in  the  frst  class  are  so  unstable 
that  they  decompose  c  spontaneously '  and  without  the 
aid  of  a  separate  ferment  j  whilst  those  which  possess 
only  the  second  degree  of  fermentability  cannot  by 
themselves  be  made  to  initiate  a  fermentative  change 
— require  to  be  brought  into  contact  with  a  more 
unstable  substance  whose  motor-decay  may  impart  the 
needful  molecular  movement.  Once  initiated,  the 
process  of  change  is  afterwards  easily  maintained,  even 
in  those  bodies  which  possess  only  the  second  degree  of 
fermentability.  This  distinction  is  one  of  a  most 
important  nature,  and  will  subsequently  help  us  to 


4i6  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

explain  the  results  of  many  experiments,  in  a  manner 
different  from  that  which  has  been  generally  accepted. 

Those  experiments  which  I  have  already  detailed 
tend  to  show,  in  opposition  to  the  widely-accepted 
views  of  Gay-Lussac,  that  the  presence  of  free  oxygen 
is  not  necessary  even  for  the  initiation  of  certain 
processes  of  fermentation  or  putrefaction,  since  such 
processes  may  occur  m  vacua.  Dr.  Child,  however, 
had  previously  shown  that  fermentation  might  take 
place  in  a  closed  flask  containing  nothing  but  freshly- 
prepared  nitrogen  gas  in  contact  with  the  fermentable 
fluid  (see  p.  347). 

My  experiments  have  been  conducted,  to  a  certain 
extent,  in  accordance  with  a  method  which  is  in  daily 
use  for  the  preservation  of  meats  and  various  kinds  of 
provisions.  Curiously  enough,  Gay-Lussac,  Gerhardt, 
and  other  chemists  came  to  the  conclusion  that  oxygen 
was  necessary  for  the  initiation  of  fermentation  and 
putrefaction,  because  meats  or  vegetables  can  only  be 
preserved  by  a  process  somewhat  similar  to  that  which 
I  have  adopted  in  my  experiments — that  is,  by  sealing 
them  hermetically  in  vessels  from  which  all  air  has 
previously  been  expelled  by  heat.  So  prepared,  the 
most  changeable  meats  or  vegetables  will  often  preserve 
all  their  freshness  for  many  years — a  fact  which  has 
been  attributed  principally  to  the  absence  of  oxygen  gas. 
Now,  however,  by  a  certain  modification  of  the  experi- 
ment, I  find  that  fermentation  and  putrefaction  will 
occur  in  vacua,  and  am  consequently  led  to  the  opposite 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  417 

conclusion — that  oxygen  is  not  always  necessary  for  the 
initiation  of  such  processes. 

This  announcement.,  made  on  a  former  occasion1, 
seems  quite  to  have  paralysed  the  understandings  of 
some  of  my  readers.  The  effect  produced  would  have 
been  laughable  had  it  not  been  rather  pitiable.  Instead 
of  repeating  such  simple  experiments  as  I  have  de- 
scribed with  infusions  of  hay  or  turnip,  and  satisfying 
themselves  as  to  the  truth  of  what  had  been  said,  the 
scientific  world  and  the  public  generally  have  been 
authoritatively  told  by  more  than  one  of  them,  that  such 
statements  are  unworthy  of  attention;  and  the  excel- 
lence of  many  meats,  which  have  been  preserved  for 
years  in  airless  and  hermetically-sealed  tins,  has  been 
said  to  afford  a  practical  denial  of  the  truth  of  my 
assertions. 

The  differences  between  the  two  kinds  of  experiments 
are,  however,  sufficiently  notable  to  account  for  the 
apparently  discordant  results.  When  provisions  are 
preserved,  it  is  in  a  tin  case  that  is  almost  filled,  and 
then  hermetically  sealed,  after  all  air  has  been  expelled 
by  a  prolonged  ebullition  of  its  fluid  contents  2.  What 
small  space  there  may  be  at  first  between  the  top  of  the 
tin  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  provisions,  is  speedily 
lessened  by  the  insinking  of  the  top,  owing  to 
atmospheric  pressure.  The  meats  are  thus  enclosed  in 

1  '  Nature,'  Nos.  35,  36,  37,  1870. 

2  Very  frequently  the  closed  tins  are  immediately  submitted,  for  half 
an  hour  or  more,  to  a  much  higher  temperature — even  to  258°-26o°F. 

E  e 


418  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

a  vessel  which  is  full — nay,  more,  in  one  in  which  they 
are  cut  off  from  all  access  of  light.  My  flasks,  on  the 
contrary,  have  been  only  half  filled  with  the  fermentable 
infusions,  and  these  have  been  subjected  to  any 
disturbing  influences  which  may  have  been  derivable 
from  the  influence  of  light,  at  the  same  time  that  they 
have  been  purposely  exposed  to  a  warm  temperature. 

What,  then,  is  the  explanation  to  be  given  of  the 
results  which  I  have  obtained  ?  Quite  early  in  the 
present  century  Gruithuisen  discovered,  as  we  have  pre- 
viously quoted  from  Burdach,  that  c  infusions,  otherwise 
very  prolific  (those  of  hay,  for  example),  did  not  yield 
infusoria  in  glass  vessels  in  which  the  stopper  touched 
the  surface  of  the  fluid.'  Under  such  circumstances  \ 
no  space  is  left  for  the  liberation  of  waste  gases ; 
pressure  rapidly  increases,  and  fermentative  or  putre- 
factive changes,  if  they  chance  to  be  initiated  at  all, 
are  generally  checked  at  their  very  onset 2.  When 

1  Even  Gay-Lussac  was  also  aware  of  a  similar  fact  with  regard  to 
urine.     And,  moreover,  urine  may  often  be  preserved,  in  this  way,  when 
it  has  not  been  previously  boiled. 

2  A  microscopical  examination  of  the  surface  of  some  preserved  meats 
which  are  sold  as  being  '  perfectly  good,'  and  whose  taste  ratifies  the 
truth  of  this  description,  has  occasionally  revealed  the   presence  of  a 
number  of  Bacteria  and  Leptothrix  filaments,  which,  though  extremely 
small  in  quantity  and  not  numerous  enough  to  affect  the  quality  of  the 
provisions,  would  seem  to  have  been  developed  in  the  situation  in  which 
they  are  found,  because  the  meats  in  their  original  condition  do  not 
present   even    this   amount    of   organisms,   and    because    other    cases 
of  meats  are  found  to  be  perfectly  free  from  organisms  ('  Nature,'  No.  48, 
p.  433).     Thus  a  change  seems  to  commence  in  certain  cases,  which  is, 
however,  so  speedily  stopped  (owing  to  the  unfavourable  nature  of  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  419 

this  liberation  or  emission  (which  is  almost  always  one 
of  the  accompaniments  of  a  fermentative  change)  has 
taken  place  to  a  slight  extent,  the  meats  are  in  the  very 
best  condition  for  preservation.  There  is  an  absence 
of  free  oxygen,  an  utter  absence  of  light,  and  also 
an  absence  of  that  diminished  pressure  which  my  ex- 
periments seem  to  show1  is  favourable  to  the  pro- 
motion of  many  kinds  of  fermentative  change.  It 
would  seem  that  fluids  whose  fermentation  or  putre- 
faction is  hindered  by  increased  pressure,  and  favoured 
by  diminution  of  pressure,  may  be  placed  under  con- 
ditions which  are  successively  more  favourable  than 
the  last  for  the  occurrence  of  such  changes,  by  putting 
a  gradually  smaller  and  smaller  quantity  of  fluid  into 
a  flask,  to  which  calcined  air  is  admitted  2.  Whilst, 
if  the  stimulus  of  free  oxygen  is  not  absolutely  needed 
in  order  to  incite  fermentation  in  the  fluid  employed, 
the  conditions  may  often  be  still  further  improved  by 
only  half  filling  the  flask,  and  procuring  a  more  and 
more  perfect  vacuum  before  it  is  hermetically  sealed. 

If  any  one  wishes,  therefore,  to  understand  why  I 
have  been  enabled  to  bring  about  putrefaction  and  to 
obtain  living  organisms  in  my  flasks,  whilst  preserved 
meats  do  not  usually  change  m  vacuo^  let  him  repeat 

'  conditions '  to  which  the  fermentable  substances  are  exposed),  as  to 
cause  no  appreciable  detriment  to  the  provisions.  In  other  rare  cases, 
the  change  does  proceed,  and  the  contents  of  the  tin  become  more 
or  less  putrid. 

1  See  Appendix  C,  Exps.  ix,  and  xv.,  Exps.  xxxiii.  and  xxxvi.,  etc. 

2  See  p.  348. 

E  e  2 


420  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

Gruithuisen's  experiment  and  one  of  my  own  with  the 
same  fluid.  Let  him  fill  a  stoppered  bottle  with  a  boiled 
infusion  of  hay  or  turnip  and  then  close  it  hermetically, 
and  he  will  almost  certainly  find,  as  I  and  others  have 
found,  that  such  an  infusion  will  keep  for  an  indefinite 
time  without  exhibiting  any  trace  of  turbidity  l.  Let 
him,  at  the  same  time,  treat  some  of  the  same  boiled 
infusion  of  hay  or  turnip  in  a  different  manner :  let  it 
only  half  fill  a  hermetically-sealed  flask  from  which  all 
air  has  been  expelled.  He  will  then  learn,  better  than 
by  any  amount  of  mere  idle  conjecturing,  whether  there 
is  any  real  contradiction  between  the  results  of  my 
experiments,  and  generally  admitted  facts. 

The  conclusions  to  which  I  have  been  compelled  to 
arrive,  therefore,  on  the  subject  of  Fermentation,  are 
these.  The  c  Vital  theory'  is  untrue  on  account  of  its 
exclusiveness ;  some  organisms  are  ferments,  though  all 
ferments  are  not  organisms.  Organisms  may  be  either 


1  Although  hay  and  other  infusions  will  yield  these  results — which  are 
comparable  with  the  majority  of  cases  in  which  provisions  are  properly 
preserved  in  tins — still  it  has  been  shown  by  M.  Pouchet  ('  Nouvelles 
Experiences,'  Paris,  1864,  p.  190),  that  beer-wort  which  has  been  boiled 
will  undergo  change  even  in  a  full  vessel,  and  give  rise  to  an  abundance 
of  yeast-cells.  This,  therefore,  is  an  example  which  is  comparable  with 
those  exceptional  cases  in  which  meats  undoubtedly  become  putrid  in 
spite  of  every  care  in  their  preparation,  and  notwithstanding  the  fact  of 
their  being  contained  in  filled-tins  which  are  hermetically  closed.  Some 
fermentations  are  doubtless  attended  by  a  less  copious  emission  of  waste 
gases  than  that  which  characterizes  other  fermentations ;  and  some 
fermentations  will  progress  in  spite  of  an  amount  of  pressure  which, 
in  other  cases,  would  quite  put  a  stop  to  the  process. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  421 

absent,  occasional  instruments,  or  necessary  conco- 
mitants in  processes  of  fermentation.  Thus  there  are 
(a)  chemical  changes  which  are  essentially  fermentative 
in  nature,  with  which  organisms  are  never  known  to 
be  associated :  to  this  class  belongs  the  conversion  of 
cellulose  into  dextrine  and  glucose  under  the  influence 
of  heat  and  sulphuric  acid.  There  are  other  (£)  fermen- 
tations that  may  be  initiated  by  ordinary  physical  or 
chemical  agencies  alone,  or  which  may  be  brought  about 
by  the  agency  of  living  organisms.  Examples  of  such 
changes  are  the  conversion  of  salicin  into  glucose 
and  saligenin,  which  may  be  produced  either  by  con- 
tact with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  or  by  the  influence  of 
yeast  (Torula) ;  and  also  the  acetous  fermentation, 
which  may  be  induced  either  by  bringing  alcohol 
into  contact  with  certain  dead  oxidising  agents,  or 
by.  subjecting  it  to  the  influence  of  a  living  fungus 
(Mycoderma].  Whilst  there  is  a  third  set  (c)  of  changes 
in  which  the  transformative  processes  are  invariably 
associated  with  the  presence  of  organisms ;  the  most 
familiar  examples  of  this  class  being  the  putrid  and 
vinous  fermentations.  Although  these  latter  may  be 
initiated  by  the  agency  either  of  dead  or  of  living 
ferments,  living  matter  is  one  of  the  invariable  products 
of  the  fermentative  changes1:  during  their  progress 

1  '  Schlossberger  observed  that  many  juicy  fungi  (for  example  Agaricus 
russula,  &c.),  when  kept  in  narrow-mouthed,  open  flasks,  underwent 
vinous  fermentation  spontaneously,  and  that  alcohol  could  be  obtained 
from  the  expressed  liquid  on  distillation ;  meanwhile  true  yeast-cells  were 


422  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

growth  and  reproduction  of  the  old,  goes  on  simul- 
taneously with  the  production  of  new  living  matter. 

Looked  at  from  a  chemical  point  of  view,  the  most 
essential  feature  of  these  changes  seems  to  be  that  they 
are  successive,  similar  changes,  induced  by  mere  con- 
tact with  another  body1.  As  we  have  previously  stated, 
however,  such  changes  do  not  form  a  group  apart,  they 
blend  insensibly  into  chemical  actions  in  general. 
To  speak  of  certain  chemical  changes,  therefore,  as 
fermentations,  as  though  they  were  different  in  kind 
from  other  chemical  changes,  may  be  convenient,  though 
it  must  be  acknowledged  to  be  a  mere  arbitrary  distinc- 
tion, and  not  justifiable  from  a  philosophical  point  of 
view.  Limiting  ourselves,  however,  to  such  processes 
as  seem  best  entitled,  in  the  opinion  of  Liebig  and 
others,  to  be  included  in  this  category,  it  appears  to 
me  that,  from  one  important  point  of  view,  they  may 
be  included  under  three  principal  groups  2. 

formed?  (Liebig  on  Alcoholic  Fermentation,  loc.  cit.)  When  a  small 
quantity  of  yeast  is  added  to  a  simple  solution  of  sugar,  there  can  be 
no  new  production  of  yeast  either  by  growth  or  evolution,  if  no  nitrogen 
exists. 

1  See  the  definition  of  Pelouze  and  Fr^my  at  p.  402.    Liebig  says: — 'We 
can  resolve  with  a  given  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  unlimited  quantities 
of  alcohol  into  ether  and  water  ;  we  can,  by  the  help  of  the  same  acid, 
convert  a  quantity  of  starch  into  grape  sugar,  without  the  acid  being 
neutralized  in  either  case.     These  effects  are  utterly  distinct  from  the 
effects  produced  when  sulphuric  acid  acts  on  metals  or  metallic  oxides ; 
but  it  is  quite  absurd  to  ascribe  them  to  a  peculiar  cause,  altogether 
different  from  chemical  affinity.'     (Letters  on  Chemistry,  1851.  p.  263.) 

2  These  views  are  submitted,  with  all  deference,  to  the  consideration  of 
chemists. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  423 

I.  (Synthetic  Fermentations^]    In  this  group  the  changes 
that  occur  are  wholly  synthetic,  leading  to  the  evolution 
of  compounds   which   have   a  higher   molecular  com- 
plexity.    Thus,  as  Schmitz  and  Glutz  have  observed, 
contact  with  strong  hydrochloric  acid  causes  the  con- 
version of  cyanogen  into  oxamide  (C2N2-f-2H2O=C2 
O2  N2H4),  by  bringing  about  a  combination  between 
the  elements  of  cyanogen  and  those  of  water.      This 
is  one  of  the  simplest  examples,  though  a  large  number 
of  such  changes  might  be  cited 1. 

II.  (Analytic  Fermentations.)     In  these   cases  we  find 
that  a  more  or  less  complex  body  breaks  up  into  two 
or  more  simpler  products,  as  when  starch  and  water, 
in  contact  with  sulphuric  acid,  is  converted  into  dextrin 
and  glucose ;  or  when  salicin,  in  contact  with  the  same 
acid,  breaks  up  into  saligenin  and  glucose. 

III.  (Analytlco-synthetlc  Fermentations^]     In  this  group 
the  two  processes  occur  simultaneously — the  ferment- 
able substance  breaks  up  into  simpler  compounds,  and 
at  the   same  time   gives   origin  to   higher  and  more 
complex  products2.     As  a  simple  instance  of  such  a 
change  may  be  cited  the  fact,  that  tartaric  acid,  when 
heated,  not  only  yields  such  lower  derivatives  as  water 
and  carbonic  acid,  but  also  the  decidedly  more  com- 

1  See  vol.  ii.  chap.  xii.  p.  24. 

2  This  is  an  occasion  most  favourable  for  the  production  of  higher 
compounds.     Elements  or  compounds  always  unite  most  freely  '  when 
one  or  both  are  in  the  act  of  separating  from  some  previous  combination. 
The  state  in  which  they  are  at  that  moment  is  called  by  chemists  the 
status  nascens,  or  nascent  state.'  (Liebig.) 


424  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

plex  body  known  as  pyrogallic  acid.  Here,  all  the 
products  are  still  mere  ordinary  chemical  compounds. 
But  in  those  processes  which  are  most  familiarly 
known  as  fermentations,  some  of  the  higher  products 
constitute  what  we  know  as  c  living '  matter,  and 
soon  separate  from  the  solution  in  the  form  of  visible 
specks  or  particles1.  This  is  what  occurs  in  the 
vinous,  and  all  those  more  or  less  putrid  fermenta- 
tions of  animal  and  vegetable  substances  with  which 
living  matter  is  invariably  and  necessarily  associated. 
These  are  all  of  them  exceedingly  complex  processes 2, 
which  are  as  yet  very  imperfectly  understood,  The 
results  of  the  experiments  of  many  investigators,  how- 
ever, compel  us  to  believe  that  living  matter  is  one 
of  the  products,  in  these  fermentations. 

Double  simultaneous  changes  of  a  synthetic  and 
analytic  character  are  familiar  enough  to  chemists. 
When  olefiant  gas  (C2  H4),  or  the  vapour  of  alcohol  or 
ether,  is  passed  through  red  hot  tubes,  a  complex  body 
known  as  naphthalene  (C10H8)  is  obtained  in  addition 
to  such  lower  products  as  marsh  gas  (C  H4),  carbon 
and  hydrogen.  Several  acids  when  heated  yield  water 
and  a  di-acid :  thus  tartaric  acid  yields  di-tartaric 
acid,  whilst  glycol  yields  di-glycol,  and .  even  tri-  and 
tetra-glycol.  More  notable,  however,  than  the  oc- 

1  See  pp.  77-79. 

2  Even  in  the  vinous  fermentation  there  are,  as  Pasteur  has  shown, 
non-volatile  products,  in  addition  to  such  derivatives  as  succinic  acid, 
glycerine,  alcohol,  and  carbonic  acid. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  425 

currence  of  all  such  reactions  is  the  fact  that  simul- 
taneous processes  of  analysis  and  synthesis  are  con- 
tinually taking  place  in  all  growing  forms  of  living 
matter.  This  dependence  of  life  on  decomposition 
is  a  subject  which  has  been  much  dwelt  upon  by 
Dr.  Freke1  and  Mr.  Hinton2;  and,  quite  apart  from 
the  special  relations  to  which  I  have  just  been  alluding, 
Baron  Liebig  has,  on  other  and  broader  grounds, 
pointed  out  the  striking  analogies  that  exist,  between 
processes  of  fermentation  and  those  nutritive  changes 
which  occur  within  the  living  body  during  the  acts  of 
assimilation  and  growth.  After  alluding  to  the  retro- 
gressive theories  of  Pasteur 3,  he  adds  : — c  I  have  re- 
garded the  phenomena  of  fermentation  and  putrefaction 
from  a  totally  different  point  of  view,  and  have  con- 
sidered their  elucidation  as  the  bridge  by  means  of 
which  we  may  arrive  at  a  more  exact  knowledge  of  the 
processes  taking  place  in  the  bodies  of  animals  and 
plants  4.  Who  can  at  the  present  time  fail  to  perceive 
the  significance  of  these  facts,  in  regard  to  the  concep- 
tion and  explanation  of  many  vital  processes?  If  a 

1  On  Organization,  1848. 

2  '  Life  in  Nature,'  1862,  pp.  51-54,  and  229-258. 

3  In  the  following  terms : — '  Inasmuch  as  Pasteur  has  again  diverted 
the  study  of  fermentation  and  putrefaction  by  microscopists  into  the  old 
objectless  path,  the  result  has  been,  that  the  general  aspect  of  these  pro- 
cesses has  been  disregarded,  the  phenomena  that  are  common  to  all  of 
them  have  been  overlooked.      Observation    has    been  directed  to  the 
search  for  mere   details,  and   it  has   thus   become  incoherent.'      (On 
Alcoholic  Fermentation,  Pharmac.  Jrnl.  Aug.  6,  1870,  p.  104.) 

4  '  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.'  Ixii.  p.  263. 


426  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

change  in  the  locality  and  relative  position  of  the 
elementary  particles  of  animal  substances1,  outside  the 
organism.,  be  capable  of  exerting  a  very  definite  in- 
fluence upon  a  number  of  organic  substances  which  are 
brought  in  contact  with  them  ;  if  those  substances  are 
thereby  decomposed,  while  new  compounds  are  formed 
from  their  elements;  and  if  it  be  considered  that  the 
class  of  substances  susceptible  of  such  changes  as  take 
place  in  fermentation,  comprises  all  those  which  are 
the  constituents  of  the  food  of  man  and  animals,  who 
can  doubt  that  the  same  causes  act  one  of  the  most 
important  parts  in  the  vital  process,  or  that  they  have 
a  powerful  share  in  the  alterations  which  the  materials 
of  food  undergo  when  they  are  converted  into  fat, 
blood,  or  constituents  of  organs2?  We  know,  indeed, 
that  there  is  in  all  parts  of  the  "  living "  animal  body  an 
incessant  change  going  on ;  that  living  particles  of  this 
body  are  eliminated;  that  their  constituents,  whether 
fibrin,  albumen,  gelatin,  or  whatever  else  they  may  be, 
rearrange  themselves  as  new  compounds;  that  their 
elements  unite  to  form  new  products.  In  accordance 
with  our  experience,  we  must  presume  that  in  virtue  of 
this  activity,  there  is  at  all  places  where  it  obtains,  and 
corresponding  to  its  direction  and  intensity,  a  parallel 
alteration  in  the  character  and  composition  of  con- 

1  Belonging  to  the  class  known  as  '  ferments.' 

2  This  view  was  very  clearly  expressed  by  Mr.  Hinton  in  his  '  Life  in 
Nature,'  pp.  41,  42 — an  interesting  work,  which  I  have  only  seen  since 
this  Chapter  was  in  type. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  427 

stituents  of  the  blood  or  of  food,  coming  in  contact 
with  such  changing  particles — that  consequently  the 
animal  metamorphosis  is  itself  a  main  cause  of  the 
alterations  that  the  food  undergoes,  and  a  determining 
condition  of  the  nutritive  process.' 

The  breadth  and  suggestiveness  of  these  views  of 
Liebig  are  most  striking,  and  we  venture  to  hope 
that  they  may  be  considered  to  derive  additional  sup- 
port from  our  own  experiments — all  of  which  tend 
to  show  the  essential  similarity  of  the  influences  that 
occasion  both  the  c  genesis '  and  the  c  growth '  of  living 
matter.  Chemical  affinities,  variously  modified  by 
physical  agencies,  are  the  causes  of  those  fermentations 
which  lead  to  the  production  of  living  matter;  and 
chemical  affinities  similarly  modified,  are  again  all 
powerful  in  continuing  the  growth  of  the  matter  thus 
initiated.  Nutritive  processes  are  closely  allied  to 
fermentative  processes,  and  both  sets  of  phenomena 
are  due  to  common  causes.  In  other  words,  the  same 
forces  which  are  operative  in  the  production  of  the 
subsequent  units  of  living  matter  are  potential  in  the 
initiation  of  the  first  unit.  The  occurrence  of  living 
matter  is,  like  the  formation  of  crystalline  matter, 
the  result  of  inherent  molecular  affinities  and  of  im- 
mutable natural  laws. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


ADDITIONAL    PROOFS    OF    THE    OCCURRENCE    OF    ARCHEBIOSIS. 

Uniformity  of  natural  phenomena.  Influence  of  Heat  upon  Living 
Matter.  Equally  uniform  appearance  of  Bacteria  and  Torula  within 
super-heated,  closed  Flasks.  Their  de  novo  origin  alone  reconciles 
such  apparently  contradictory  Facts.  Difficulties  with  which  the 
Experimenter  has  to  contend.  Nature  works  with  Unboiled  Mate- 
rials, and  under  freer  Conditions.  Further  deleterious  Action  of 
increased  Heat.  Living,  Colloidal,  and  Crystalloidal  Matter. 
Diminishing  Molecular  Complexity  goes  with  diminishing  destruc- 
tibility  by  Heat.  Limits  within  which  Archebiosis  is  possible. 
Life  and  Death  are  but  Transitions. 

Experiments  with  still  Higher  Temperatures.  Those  of  Mantegazza, 
Wyman,  and  Cantoni.  Author's  experiments.  Mode  of  preparation. 
Sealed  flasks  heated  to  27o°-275°F.  Living  Torulce,  Protamceba;, 
and  Monads.  Sealed  flasks  heated  to  293° F.  Bacteria,  Leptotbrix, 
and  chlorophyll-containing  Organisms  found.  Sealed  flasks  heated 
to  295°-3O7°F  for  four  Hours.  Bacteria,  Fungus  spores,  and  Fungi 
found.  Other  experiments  in  which  Flasks  were  heated  to  327°F 
and  464°  F.  Charring  of  Organic  Matter  most  extensive.  Action 
of  high  temperatures  upon  Living  Organisms.  They  not  only  kill 
but  disintegrate.  Experiments  conclusively  in  favour  of  the  occur- 
rence of  Archebiosis. 

THE  regularity  of  natural  phenomena  is  proverbial, 
and  is  tacitly  recognized  by  each  one  of  us  in 
our  daily  actions.     Even  where  the  succession  of  events 
seems  less  constant,  they  are  none  the  less  the  natural 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  429 

resultants  of  a  more  complex  set  of  antecedent  condi- 
tions. Chance  finds  no  recognized  place  where  law, 
or  uniformity  of  result,  is  eternal.  New  doctrines 
must,  therefore,  before  their  period  of  general  ac- 
ceptance, be  shown  to  rest  upon  phenomena  that  are 
easily  obtainable.  Facts  which  can  be  attested  by  all 
are  not  to  be  gainsayed  by  any  amount  of  theorizing, 
or  mere  affirmation  of  opposite  c  mental  convictions/ 

The  uniformity  in  the  properties  of  living  matter, 
as  it  exists  in  the  simplest  living  things,  is  recognized 
by  all  biologists.  All  minute,  naked,  living  organisms 
with  which  experiment  has  been  made,  have  been  killed 
by  being  immersed  for  a  few  minutes  in  water  raised 
to  the  temperature  of  140° F;  so  that,  judging  from  this 
known  uniformity,  there  is  very  good  reason  for  believing 
that  such  an  amount  of  heat  would  prove  destructive 
to  all  similar,  minute,  naked  portions  of  living  matter. 
With  regard  to  the  higher  temperature  of  2I2°F,  how- 
ever, there  is  the  most  unanimous  agreement  (amongst 
all  those  who  are  best  entitled  to  speak  upon  the 
subject)  as  to  the  fact  that  such  an  amount  of  heat  is 
destructive  to  all  the  lower  forms  of  life  which  are  to 
be  met  with  in  infusions. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  labours  of  very  many  experi- 
menters have  now  placed  it  beyond  all  question  of 
doubt  or  cavil,  that  living  Bacteria,  Toru/*,  and  other 
low  forms  of  life,  will  make  their  appearance  and 
multiply  within  hermetically-sealed  flasks  (containing 
organic  infusions),  which  had  been  previously  heated  to 


430  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

2 1 2°  F,  even  for  one  or  two  hours.  This  result  is  now  so 
easily  and  surely  obtainable,  as  to  make  it  come  within 
the  domain  of  natural  law1.  All  pre-existing  living 
matter  and  organisms  having  been  killed  within  the 
closed  flasks,  how  can  new  living  things  appear  therein 
save  by  a  process  of  Archebiosis — or  new  origination 
of  living  compounds  ?  The  explanations  which  are  ad- 
duced may  be  criticized,  the  phraseology  employed  may 
be  objected  to,  but  the  great  fact  remains  that  the  new 
living  matter  must  have  originated  by  the  occurrence 
of  some  combinations  similar  in  kind  to  those  which 


1  In  a  very  large  number  of  trials  I  have  never  had  a  single  failure 
when  an  infusion  of  turnip  has  been  employed,  and  from  what  I  have 
more  recently  seen  of  the  effects  produced  by  the  addition  of  a  very 
minute  fragment  of  cheese  to  such  an  infusion  (see  Appendix  C, 
pp.  xxxiv — xxxviii),  I  fully  believe  that  in  999  cases  out  of  1000,  if  not 
in  every  case,  a  positive  result  could  be  obtained.  Having  made  use  of 
this  infusion  most  frequently,  I  am  able  to  speak  more  positively  con- 
cerning it  than  about  others,  many  of  which  would,  I  doubt  not,  if 
sufficient  care  were  taken,  yield  equally  unmistakeable  results.  It  must 
indeed  never  be  forgotten,  that  the  obtaining  of  positive  results  or  not, 
in  such  experiments,  depends  not  a  little  upon  the  strength  of  the 
solutions  employed.  A  weak  infusion  will  often  yield  no  trace  of  living 
things,  whilst  a  stronger  infusion — prepared  at  the  same  time,  and 
treated  in  the  same  manner — will,  after  a  similar  period,  be  found  to 
swarm  with  living  organisms.  The  original  access  of  germs  having  been 
equally  possible  in  each  case,  and  the  destructive  influences  to  which 
they  had  been  submitted  being  similar,  the  subsequent  presence  of  living 
organisms  in  the  one  solution  and  their  absence  from  the  other,  seems 
only  consistent  with  the  supposition,  that  an  increased  quantity  of  or- 
ganic matter  in  a  solution  acts  in  the  same  wray  as  the  addition  of  a 
very  fermentable  fragment  (cheese),  and  suffices  to  produce  an  increased 
tendency  towards  the  occurrence  of  those  fermentative  changes  during 
which  there  is  a  correlative  production  of  new-born  living  matter. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  431 

take  place  in  plants  during  every  moment  of  their 
growth — even  though  such  chemical  combinations  oc- 
cur c  spontaneously,'  or  independently  of  the  influence 
of  any  pre-existing  living  protoplasm. 

It  may  be  easily  understood,  however,  that  he  who 
investigates  this  subject  has  to  work  under  the  in- 
fluence of  a  set  of  conditions  which  are  of  the  most 
unfavourable  description.  What  he  wishes  to  ascer- 
tain is  whether  in  the  wide  field  of  nature — in  its 
ponds,  its  lakes,  its  rivers,  and  its  ocean  beds,  where 
there  is  the  freest  play  of  cosmical  forces  upon  the 
most  suitable  materials — any  de  novo  origination  of  living 
matter  is  taking  place.  And  with  the  view  of  answering 
this  portentous  question,  he  is  compelled  (if  he  would 
avail  himself  of  experimental  conditions  which  shall 
be  free  from  all  chances  of  error)  to  resort  to  a  poverty 
of  conditions,  which  seems  but  a  mockery  of  the  wealth 
of  nature.  In  the  one  case  we  have  ponds,  containing 
in  solution  an  abundance  of  protein  materials  whose 
virtues  have  not  been  impaired  by  the  blighting  in- 
fluence of  heat,  and  which  are  freely  exposed  to  air, 
light,  and  all  those  other  known  or  unknown  cosmical 
agencies  which  stimulate  the  growth  of  living  matter. 
Whilst,  in  the  other  case,  the  experimenter  has  to 
content  himself  with  boiled  organic  infusions,  shut 
up  within  the  narrow  confines  of  a  small,  hermetically- 
sealed  flask.  Seeing,  however,  that  conclusive  results 
are  still  obtainable  in  spite  of  these  unpromising  con- 
ditions, the  subject  is  one  on  which  science  may  be 


432  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

congratulated.  Had  the  natural  tendency  to  the  for- 
mation of  living  compounds  in  certain  solutions  been 
much  less  potent  than  it  seems  to  be1,  the  problem  to 
which  we  have  been  referring  could  never  have  been 
solved.  As  it  is,  that  which  we  are  absolutely  com- 
pelled to  believe  takes  place  within  the  closed  flasks, 
may  illuminate  our  mental  vision  concerning  all  the 
richer  probabilities  which  are  possibly  being  realized 
from  moment  to  moment  in  such  freer  sites  as  ponds, 
lakes,  rivers,  and  ocean  beds. 

Looking,  however,  again  at  the  experimental  aspects 
of  the  question,  it  will  be  easily  understood  that  by 
increasing  the  stringency  of  the  c  conditions,'  we  may 
ultimately  succeed  in  stifling  the  voice  of  nature. 

That  combination  of  properties  which  we  generalize 
and  include  under  the  word  c  Life '  being  the  result  of  a 
fine  and  subtle  molecular  combination  in  the  matter 
by  which  it  is  manifested,  it  is  easy  to  understand 
that  a  certain  amount  of  heat  may  be  adequate  to 
destroy  these  more  delicate  combinations,  and  so 
put  an  end  to  the  c  vital5  manifestations  with  which 
they  are  associated.  Such  is  the  action  of  heat  when 
it  just  suffices  to  convert  a  living  thing  into  a  dead 
organism.  Though  it  is  no  longer  living,  however, — 
though,  in  common  parlance,  its  clife*  has  departed — 
the  body  may  still  remain  as  an  organic  aggregate. 
If  allowed  to  continue  in  water,  it  gradually  disin- 
tegrates, and  becomes  more  or  less  dissolved — yielding 
1  See  Vol.  ii.  pp.  27-32. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  433 

an  organic  solution  in  which  colloidal  substances  are 
dissolved. 

But  just  as  the  combinations  which  constitute  living 
matter  are  superior  in  complexity  to,  and  more  destruc- 
tible by  heat  than,  colloidal  compounds,  so  are  colloidal 
compounds   themselves  broken   up  and   more   or   less 
destroyed,  by  an  amount  of  heat  which  will  leave  many 
crystalloids  unaltered.     The  degree  of  heat  necessary 
to  decompose  different  complex  colloids  is,  of  course, 
subject   to   an   amount   of  variation   which   does   not 
admit  of  previous  predication.     As  a  rule,  however, 
the   more  intense  the   heat   to  which  a  solution  has 
been   subjected,  the    more    has    the    complex   compo- 
sition of  the  dissolved  substances  been  impaired,  and 
the  less  is  the  solution  calculated  to  be  one  in  which 
the  new  combinations  initiative  of  living  matter  could 
arise.    The  de  novo  origin  of  living  matter  in  a  solution 
is  possible  at  any  period,  after  the  destruction  of  all 
its    pre-existing    living    things,    provided    the    heat 
employed  has  not  been  so  extreme   as   to   break   up 
its  colloidal  compounds,  or  such  other  unstable  com- 
binations as  may  be  capable  of  conjointly  yielding  so 
high   a   product.      The   number   of  successful  results, 
however,  naturally  diminishes,  according  as  one  em- 
ploys, either  more  destructible   compounds   or   higher 
temperatures  and  less  destructible  compounds. 

So  that  however  meagre  the  chances  may  seem 
for  the  occurrence  of  nature's  subtlest  material  com- 
binations within  even  ordinary  experimental  flasks  (as 

F  f 


434  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

compared  with  those  which  favour  their  induction  in 
the  outside  world),  the  chances  become  far  less  when 
still  higher  temperatures  are  made  use  of,  with  or 
without  longer  periods  of  exposure.  And.,  ultimately, 
a  limit  must  be  attained,  at  which  the  degrading  in- 
fluence of  heat  produces  effects  that  suffice  to  render 
the  experimental  vessel  a  dreary  and  lifeless  tomb,  in 
which  no  living  thing  can  subsequently  arise.  The 
transition  from  the  not-living  to  the  living,  is  an 
ascent  in  molecular  complexity  which  may  not  be 
possible  under  such  conditions — where  the  much-altered 
matter  exists,  though  shorn  of  its  finer  virtues. 

'  Nee  perit  in  tanto  quicquam  (mihi  credite)  mundo, 
Sed  variat,  faciemque  novat :  nascique  vocatur, 
Incipere  esse  aliud,  quam  quod  fuit  ante  ;  morique, 
Definere  illud  idem.' 

Although  no  additional  evidence  is  actually  required 
to  prove  that  living  matter  can  and  does  arise  de  novo^ 
still  my  own  experiments,  and  those  of  others,  in 
which  very  much  higher  temperatures  have  been  re- 
sorted to,  and  successful  results  have  yet  been  obtained, 
ought  to  be  cited,  because  of  the  great  additional  surety 
which  they  supply  that  no  pre-existing  living  matter 
was  left  within  the  experimental  flasks. 

In  1851,  Prof.  Mantegazza1,  of  Pavia,  introduced  a 
decoction  of  lettuce  into  a  strong  glass  tube,  and  then 
hermetically  sealed  it  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp.  One- 

1  '  Giornal  dell  R.  Istituto  Lombardo.'     Exp.  iii. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  435 

third  of  the  tube  was  occupied  by  the  fluid,  and  the 
remaining  two-thirds  contained  ordinary  air.  It  was 
exposed  for  thirty  minutes  to  a  temperature  of  2I2°F, 
and  for  forty  minutes  to  384°?  (i4O°C),  in  a  bath 
saturated  with  carbonate  of  potash.  Fifty-nine  hours 
after  having  taken  the  tube  from  the  bath  (during  which 
time  it  had  been  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  about 
75°  F),  it  was  divided  by  a  file,  and  the  fluid  was  sub- 
mitted to  a  microscopical  examination,  In  the  fluid, 
Prof.  Mantegazza  says  he  found  living  specimens  of 
Bacterium  termo. 

In  1862,  Prof.  Jeffries  Wyman,  of  Cambridge,  U.S., 
performed,  and  subsequently  recorded  the  following 
experiments1.  cExp.  xxxiv.  (3.)  March  27th.  Juice 
of  mutton,  in  a  hermetically  sealed  flask,  was  boiled 
five  minutes  in  a  Papin's  digester,  under  a  pressure  of 
two  atmospheres  [i2o-6°F],  A  film  formed  on  the 
fourth  day.  It  was  opened  several  days  later  in  the 
presence  of  Prof.  Gray,  and  found  to  contain  Vibrios 
and  Bacteriums,  some  of  them  moving  with  great 
rapidity.' 

The  next  experiment  was  also  made  with  the  same 
kind  of  solution  2.  It  is  thus  recorded  :  —  c  Exp.  xxxv.  (3.) 
The  same  as  the  preceding,  and  boiled  in  Papin's 
digester  ten  minutes,  and  under  the  pressure  of  five 


1  '  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,'  July,  1862. 

2  In  two  other  experiments,  in  which  beef  juice  was  employed  instead 
of  mutton  juice,  and  in  which  the  flasks  were  raised  to  the  same  tem- 
peratures for  fifteen  minutes,  no  organisms  were  found. 

F   f  2 


436  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

atmospheres  |j52*20F].  No  film  was  formed.  The  flask 
was  opened  on  the  forty-first  day.  Monads  and  Vibrios 
were  found,  some  of  the  latter  moving  across  the  field. 
No  putrefaction ;  the  solution  had  an  alkaline  taste.' 

In  1868,  Prof.  Cantoni,  of  Pavia,  also  made  some 
experiments  in  concert  with  Profs.  Balsamo  and  Maggi, 
in  which  hermetically  sealed  flasks  containing  various 
organic  solutions  or  infusions  were  heated  to  tempera- 
tures ranging  from  ioo°-n7°C  (2i2°-242-6°F),  in  a 
Papin's  digester1.  Amongst  other  fluids  they  tried  a 
solution  of  yolk  of  egg,  and  with  reference  to  this  Prof. 
Cantoni  says  2:  cWe  began  by  observing  that  this 
solution,  enclosed  with  plenty  of  air  in  a  flask  hermeti- 
cally sealed  and  heated  to  io5°-uo°,  produced  a  large 
number  of  Vibrios  in  two  days.  We  heated  it  in 
different  experiments  to  112°,  114°,  116°,  117°,  and 
always  obtained  the  same  result^  if  the  temperature  of  the 
air  was  from  25°  to  27°.'  Experiments  were  similarly 
conducted  with  other  organic  fluids,  which  led  to  the 
following  results: — cThe  juice  from  meat  sufficiently 
concentrated  produces  Vibrios  if  heated  to  112°,  but 
not  if  heated  to  1 14° ;  cow's  milk  of  good  quality  pro- 
duces them  if  heated  to  H3*5°3  and  remains  unpro- 

1  I  was  for  a  long  time  unable  to  procure  a  sight  of  Prof.  Cantoni's 
valuable  papers,  but  he  has  lately  been  kind  enough  to  send  them  to  me. 
Having  merely  seen  references  to  them  in  journals,  I  was  led  on  a 
former  occasion  ('  Nature/  No.  48,  1870,  p.  432)  to  state  that  he  had 
obtained  positive   results   at   242-6°  C,  instead   of   242-6° F.      I   much 
regret  that  the  mistake  should  have  occurred. 

2  '  Gazzetta  Medica  Italiana-Lombardia,'  Serie  VI.  t.  i,  1868. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  437 

ductive  from  1 14-5° ;  a  decoction  of  pumpkin 1  produces 
them  at  110°  and  not  at  112°;  the  albumen  of  an  egg 
is  productive  at  112°,  and  at  113°  commences  to  show 
signs  of  disintegration ;  and  the  decoction  of  hay  gives, 
moreover.  Vibrios  at  no0,  but  cannot  when  subjected 
to  a  higher  temperature 2.'  These  experiments  were 
all  comparable  with  one  another,  from  the  fact  that 
they  were  performed  during  the  months  of  July  and 
August,  when  the  atmospheric  temperature  remained 
pretty  constantly  at  from  25°-27°C  (77°-8o°F)3. 

Thinking  it  very  desirable  to  ascertain  the  highest 
point  to  which  some  solutions  might  be  heated  with- 
out being  rendered  unproductive ;  and  also  wishing 

1  Heated  to  any  extent  short  of  no°C,  this  fluid  is  said  by  Prof- 
Cantoni  to  produce  Vibrios  with  astonishing  rapidity. 

2  Solutions  of  Liebig's  soup  were  also  found,  on  another  occasion,  to 
be  unproductive  at  and  above  this  point,  though  they  were  productive 
after  exposure  to  temperatures  a  little  lower,  providing  the  daily  atmo- 
spheric temperature  remained  high. 

3  Prof.  Cantoni   naturally   enough  asks,  why   it   should   be,   if  the 
Vibriones   are   in   all   cases   produced   from   germs,   that   these   germs 
should  be  killed  at  such  different  temperatures  in  different  fluids;  and 
why  the  germs  (which  nobody  has    seen)  should  require  such  a  very 
much  higher  temperature  to  kill  them,  than  suffices  to  destroy  their 
parents  ?     The  latter  he,  also,  believes  to  be  destroyed  by  a  temperature 
of  about  60°  C.     Then,  again,  there  is  the  fact  that  the  amount  of 
heat  which  is  necessary  in  order  to  stop  the  productivity  of  the  fluid 
(other  things  being  equal),  becomes  lower  and  lower  as  the  temperature 
of  the  air  diminishes — so  that  the  yolk  of  egg,  for  instance,  which,  with 
a  temperature  of  25°C,  will  produce  after  being  heated  even  to  H7°C, 
will  not  produce  after  being  heated  only  to  110°  if  the  temperature  of 
the  air  continues  at  20°,  whilst  when  it  is  still  further  reduced  to  15° 
(59°  F)  the  fluid  ceases  to  be  productive  after  it  has  been  exposed  to 
105°  or  even  100°. 


438  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

to  ascertain  what  amount  of  evidence  was  obtain- 
able as  to  the  possibility  of  living  matter  being  pro- 
duced de  novo,  from  changes  taking  place,  in  the  main, 
amongst  inorganic  or  mineral  elements,  I  made  during 
the  present  and  the  past  year  many  experiments,  some 
of  which  I  will  now  detail.  With  the  exception  of  Prof. 
Mantegazza's  one  experiment,  and  of  one  by  Prof. 
Wyman,  all  the  flasks  in  my  experiments  have  been 
raised  to  temperatures  higher  than  any  which  had  pre- 
viously been  resorted  to. 

In  those  which  have  been  productive,  the  hermetically 
closed  flasks  have  been  exposed  to  temperatures  ranging 
from  27o°-3o7°F  (i32°-i53°C),  though  in  other  un- 
productive experiments  the  flasks  have  been  heated  to 
327°F  and  464° F.  As  on  other  occasions,  the  solu- 
tions were  heated  in  <vacuo,  so  that  the  experiments 
also  differed  in  this  respect  from  those  of  Mantegazza, 
Wyman,  and  Cantoni,  who  adhered  to  the  method 
pursued  by  Spallanzani  and  Needham. 

In  some  of  my  earlier  experiments,  I  had  the  benefit 
of  Prof.  Frank]  and's  assistance,  though  subsequently  he 
kindly  placed  his  digester  at  my  disposal 1. 

The  mode  of  preparation  of  the  flasks  and  the  instru- 
ment employed  for  heating  them  were  thus  described 
by  Prof.  Frankland : — 

1  Of  the  Experiments  now  about  to  be  recorded,  those  in  which  the 
flasks  were  heated  under  Dr.  Frankland's  superintendence  are  Nos.  g, 
b>j,  k>  s>  ui  wt  and.y,  whilst  those  which  were  executed  alone  by  me  in 
University  College  are  Nos.  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  ft  I,  m,  «,  o,  p,  q,  r,  t,  v,  x* 
and  z. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  439 

c  Each  liquid  was  placed  in  a  glass  tube  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  nine  inches  long,  and 
closed  at  one  end  by  fusion  of  the  glass.  The  open  end 
of  the  tube  was  then  drawn  out  so  as  to  form  a  thick 
capillary  tube,  which  was  afterwards  connected  with  a 
Sprengel's  mercurial  pump.  The  action  of  the  pump 
soon  produced  a  tolerably  good  vacuum,  when  on  gently 
warming  the  liquid,  the  latter  began  to  boil,  its  vapour 
expelling  the  last  traces  of  air  from  the  apparatus. 
After  the  boiling  had  been  continued  for  several 
minutes,  the  tube  was  hermetically  sealed  at  the  capil- 
lary part. 

cThe  tubes  were  now  placed  in  the  wrought  iron 
digester,  described  by  me  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions for  1854,  p.  260.  It  consists  essentially  of  a 
cylindrical  iron  vessel,  with  a  tightly-fitting  cover, 
which  can  be  securely  screwed  on  to  it.  Through  the 
centre  of  the  cover  passes  an  iron  tube,  which  descends 
half  way  down  the  centre  of  the  cylinder.  This  tube 
is  closed  at  bottom,  and  contains  a  column  of  mercury 
about  an  inch  long,  and  a  thermometer  plunged  into 
the  mercury  shows  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  inside 
the  digester. 

c  Water  being  now  poured  into  the  digester  until 
it  covered  the  tubes,  and  the  cover  having  been 
screwed  on,  heat  was  applied  by  means  of  a  gas 
stove. 

c  The  temperature  was  allowed  to  rise  to  about 
15O°C,  and  was  maintained  between  146°  and  I53°C 


440  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

for  four  hours  *,  and  it  is  almost  needless  to  say  that 
every  part  of  the  sealed  tubes  and  their  contents  was 
exposed  to  this  temperature  during  the  whole  time. 
The  glass  tubes,  though  of  moderately  thick  glass  only, 
ran  no  risk  of  fracture,  because  the  pressure  inside  them 
was  approximately  counterbalanced  by  the  pressure  of 
steam  outside/ 

In  all  the  subsequent  experiments  which  I  performed 
alone,  an  approximate  vacuum  was  procured,  as  in  my 
former  experiments,  by  boiling  the  fluids  and  sealing 
the  flasks  hermetically  during  ebullition.  The  vacuum 
may  have  been  somewhat  less  perfect  in  these  cases 
than  when  it  was  procured  by  means  of  the  Sprengel 
pump,  though  this  circumstance  does  not  in  the  least 
diminish  the  value  of  the  experiments.  The  vacuum 
was  not  desired,  because,  by  working  under  these  con- 
ditions, all  atmospheric  c  germs '  might  be  abstracted — 
since  in  all  cases  the  flasks  were  exposed  to  a 
temperature  which  is  acknowledged  to  be  destructive 
of  living  things  whether  in  air  or  in  fluids.  In  the 
experiments  of  Mantegazza,  Wyman,  and  Cantoni,  the 
portions  of  the  closed  flasks  above  the  level  of  the 
fluids  were  filled  with  ordinary  air.  If,  therefore,  the 
vacuum  may  not  have  been  quite  so  complete  in  some 
of  my  latter  experiments  as  in  those  in  which  I  had 
the  benefit  of  Prof.  Frankland's  assistance,  it  is  a  matter 

1  This  prolonged  period  of  exposure  was  subsequently  only  resorted 
to  in  some  of  the  experiments.  In  others  they  were  exposed  for  shorter 
periods,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  different  headings. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  441 

of  no  importance,  and  does  not  in  the  least  affect  their 
value. 

Solutions  exposed  in  airless  and  hermetically  sealed  flasks  to 
2*io°-2*i$°F  (i32°-i35°C)  for  twenty  minutes,  and  sub- 
sequently maintained  at  a  temperature  of  7o°-8o°  F.  These 
flasks  were  also  exposed  to  direct  sunlight  for  eight  days  *. 

'Experiment  a.  A  strong  infusion  of  turnip,  rendered 
very  faintly  alkaline  by  liquor  potassae,  to  which  a  few 
muscular  fibres  of  a  cod-fish  were  added. 

When  taken  from  the  digester  the  fluid  was  found  to 
have  assumed  a  pale  brownish  colour.  The  flask  was 
kept  in  a  warm  place,  in  addition  to  being  exposed  to 
direct  sunlight.  The  vacuum  having  been  ascertained 
to  be  partially  preserved,  the  neck  of  the  flask  was 
broken  two  months  after  the  date  of  its  preparation. 
The  reaction  of  the  fluid  was  then  decidedly  acid,  and 
the  odour  (differing  altogether  from  that  of  mere  baked 
turnip)  was  sour,  though  not  at  all  foetid.  The  fluid 
was  very  slightly  turbid,  and  there  was  a  well-marked 
sediment  consisting  of  reddish-brown  fragments,  and  a 
light  flocculent  deposit.  On  microscopical  examination, 
the  fragments  were  found  to  be  portions  of  altered  mus- 
cular fibre,  whilst  the  flocculent  deposit  was  composed, 

1  The  solutions  and  flasks  were  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  from 
no''-i350C  for  one  hour,  if  we  include  the  twenty  minutes'  exposure, 
and  also  the  period  which  elapsed  till  the  fluid  in  the  digester  cooled 
down  to  iro°C.  The  subsequent  exposure  to  direct  sunlight  was,  for 
several  hours  daily,  during  some  very  fane  weather  in  the  month  of  March. 


442 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


for  the  most  part,  of  granular  aggregations  and  bacteria. 
In  the  portions  of  fluid  and  deposit  which  were  examined. 


FIG.  30. 

Bacteria,  Torula,  Fungus-mycelium,  and  Spores  of  different  sizes,  from 
a  neutralized  Turnip  Infusion.     (  X  800.) 

there  were  thousands  of  Bacteria  of  most  diverse  shapes 
and  sizes,  either  separate  or  aggregated  into  flakes. 
There  were  also  a  large  number  of  monilated  chains 1 
of  various  lengths,  though  mostly  short ,  a  large  number 
of  small  spherical  Torula  cells  with  mere  granular 
contents,  and  a  smaller  number  of  ovoid,  vacuolated 
cells.  There  were,  in  addition,  a  considerable  number 
of  brownish  nucleated  spores,  gradually  increasing  in 
size  from  mere  specks  about  -^-giro"  in  diameter,  up  to 
bodies  -2-§W  in  diameter ;  and  also  a  small  quantity  of 
a  mycelial  filament,  having  solid  protoplasmic  contents, 

1  Similar  to  those  found  in  other  turnip  infusions  which  have  been 
slightly  acid   and  not  foetid.     See  Appendix  C,  Experiments  xxi.  and 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  443 

broken  at  intervals,  and  bearing  bud-like  projections, 
each  of  which  was  capped  with  a  single  spore. 

'Experiment  b.  An  infusion  of  common  cress  (Lepi- 
dium  sativum),to  which  a  few  of  the  leaves  and  stalks 
of  the  plant  were  added. 

This  was  kept  in  the  same  way  as  the  last  solu- 
tion, and  was  similarly  exposed  to  sun-light  for  a 
few  days. 

After  nine  weeks,  and  before  the  neck  of  the  flask 
was  broken,  the  vacuum  was  found  to  be  well  preserved. 
The  reaction  of  the  fluid  was  distinctly  acid,  but  there 
was  no  notable  odour  of  any  kind.  The  fluid  itself 
was  tolerably  clear  and  free  from  scum,  though  there 
was  a  considerable  quantity  of  a  dirty-looking  flocculent 
sediment  at  the  bottom  of  the  flask,  amongst  the  debris 
of  the  cress.  On  microscopical  examination  of  portions 
of  these  fragments,  most  of  the  cells  in  the  stalks  were 
found  crowded  with  very  actively-moving  granules.  In 
some  of  the  leaves  the  chlorophyle  was  not  much 
altered,  whilst  in  others  it  presented  various  stages 
of  decomposition — being  in  some  cells  wholly  replaced 
by  a  blackish-brown  granular  material.  Large  quan- 
tities of  such  matter  also  existed,  either  dispersed  or 
aggregated,  amongst  the  sediment;  and  in  some  of  it 
three  minute  and  delicate  Protamceb#  were  seen,  creep- 
ing with  moderately-rapid,  slug-like,  movements  and 
changes  of  form.  They  contained  no  nucleus,  and 
presented  only  a  few  granules  in  their  interior.  Partly 
in  the  same  drop,  and  partly  in  others,  there  were  also 


444  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

seen  more  than   a  dozen  very  active  Monads^   40*00" 
in  diameter — each  being  provided  with  a  long  rapidly- 


Bacteria,  Torula,  Protamoebce,  Monads,  &c.,  from  an  infusion  of  Common 
Cress.     ( X  800.) 

moving  flagellum,  with  which  neighbouring  granules 
were  lashed  about *.  There  were  many  smaller  motion- 
less spherules,  of  different  sizes,  whose  body- substance 
presented  a  similar  appearance  to  that  of  the  Monads. 
There  were  also  several  unjointed  Bacteria,  presenting 
most  rapid  progressive  movements,  accompanied  by 
rapid  axial  rotations ;  many  Torula- cells  of  different 
kinds,  and  coarser  fungus  spores,  some  of  them  with 
segmented  protoplasmic  contents  j  and  lastly,  some 
mycelial  or  algoid  filaments,  containing  tolerably  equal 
blocks  of  colourless  protoplasm  within  an  investing 
sheath. 


1  A  drop  containing  several  of  the  Monads  was  placed  for  about  five 
minutes  on  a  glass  slip,  in  a  warm-water  oven  maintained  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  i4o°F.  All  the  movements  of  the  Monads  ceased  from  that 
time ;  and  they  never  again  showed  any  signs  of  life. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  445 

Experiment  c.  An  infusion  of  beef  with  some  mus- 
cular fibres,  prepared  at  the  same  time,  similarly  ex- 
posed, and  also  opened  after  nine  weeks,  was  not  found 
to  contain  any  living  things,  though  there  was  an 
abundance  of  mere  moving  granules.  Some  of  the 
muscular  fibres  had  preserved  their  natural  appearance, 
whilst  others  had  lost  it,  and  had  become  completely 
granular. 

Experiment  d.  An  infusion  of  cod-fish  muscle,  simi- 
larly prepared  and  exposed,  also  proved  quite  sterile. 

Experiment  e.  A  solution  containing  ten  grains  of 
potash  and  ammonia  alum,  three  grains  of  tartar  emetic, 
and  half  a  grain  of  new  cheese  to  an  ounce  of  distilled 
water. 

The  vacuum  having  been  ascertained  to  be  still 
partly  preserved,  this  flask  was  opened  at  the  end  of 
the  seventh  week.  The  fluid  was  odourless,  and  its 
reaction  neutral.  There  was  a  considerable  quantity 
of  dirty-looking  deposit,  and  some  oily  matter  on 
the  surface,  though  the  fluid  itself  was  tolerably 
clear.  The  deposit  was,  for  the  most  part,  com- 
posed of  dark  granules,  together  with  mucoid  flakes 
also  containing  granules.  Mixed  with  the  moving  gra- 
nules were  a  considerable  number  of  Bacteria — partly 
of  the  ordinary  shape,  and  partly  of  the  monilated 
variety — the  movements  of  which  were  tolerably  ex- 
tensive. They  travelled  over  small  areas,  and  danced 
around  one  another,  in  a  manner  quite  different  from 
the  mere  granules  with  which  they  were  intermixed. 


446  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

There  were  no  traces  of  Torulte  or  Leptothrix  fila- 
ments. 

Experiment  f.  A  solution  containing  ten  grains  of 
ammonic  tartrate  and  three  grains  of  sodic  phosphate, 
with  half  a  grain  of  new  cheese,  to  an  ounce  of 
distilled  water. 

The  vacuum  having  been  ascertained  to  be  well 
preserved,  the  flask  was  opened  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixth  week.  The  fluid  was  found  to  have  a  neutral 
reaction,  and  there  was  a  well-marked,  whitish  deposit 
at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  On  microscopical  examina- 
tion, no  Bacteria,  Torul^e,  or  Fungi  were  found,  but 
there  were  a  great  number  of  fibres,  exactly  like  un- 
segmented  Leptothrix  filaments,  growing  from  the  midst 
of  aggregations  of  the  irregular  particles  of  which  the 
deposit  was  composed.  Other  filaments  were  seen 
having  a  close  resemblance  to  the  spiral  fibres  met 
with  in  somewhat  similar  solutions  which  were  exposed 
to  a  lower  temperature  \  They  were,  however,  in 
smaller  masses,  the  spirals  were  less  marked,  and 
transitional  states  existed  between  them  and  the  fibres 
which  resembled  Leptotkrix 2. 

1  See  Appendix  A,  pp.  v — ix. 

3  Since  this  was  written  I  have  seen  Leptotbrix  (or  Spirulind]  filaments, 
growing  so  as  to  form  quite  irregular,  spirally-disposed  masses  of  dif- 
ferent sizes.  These  were  obtained  from  the  surface  of  water,  in  which 
a  few  young  twigs  of  the  common  elder  had  been  immersed  for  five  or 
six  days.  All  stages  were  seen,  also,  between  such  spiral  masses  and 
more  ordinary  Bacteria  and  Vibrio  forms.  As  the  latter  elongated  they 
gradually  became  curved.  Segmentations  were  seen,  at  intervals,  in  the 
internal  solid  protoplasm  of  which  they  were  principally  composed. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  447 


Solutions  exposed  in  airless  and  hermetically-sealed  flasks  to 
293°^  (i45°C),  for  from  five  to  twenty  minutes ;  and 
subsequently  maintained  at  a  temperature  qf^o-So0^1. 

'Experiment  g.  A  turnip  infusion  rendered  very 
faintly  alkaline  by  liquor  potassse. 

The  flask  was  opened  after  nine  weeks,  when  the 
vacuum  was  found  to  be  partially  preserved.  The  fluid 
was  still  of  the  same  light  brown  colour  as  when  it  was 
taken  from  the  digester.  Its  reaction  was  now  decidedly 
acid,  though  the  odour  was  slightly  sour  and  not  foetid. 
There  was  a  small  quantity  of  granular  scum  on  some 
parts  of  the  surface,  and  a  distinct  brownish  flocculent 
sediment,  but  the  bulk  of  the  fluid  was  tolerably 
clear.  On  microscopical  examination  of  the  deposit, 
a  number  of  minute  Torula-cells  were  found,  both  singly 
and  in  groups.  They  varied  from  the  minutest  specks 
up  to  bodies  ^V?/'  in  breadth,  and  were  mostly  with- 


FIG.  32. 
Various  kinds  of  Torula  from  a  neutralized  Infusion  of  Turnip.   (  X  600.) 

out  nuclei  or  vacuoles.     Some  were  growing  out  into 
mycelial  filaments.    Other  small,  nucleated,  spores  were 


448  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

also  met  with,  singly  and  in  groups ;  and  in  addition, 
a  thick-walled  body  with  granular  contents,  y^W'  ^n 
diameter.  No  distinct  Bacteria  were  seen,  though  there 
were  numerous  acicular  crystals,  some  solitary,  and 
others  in  peculiar  bundles  having  constrictions  at  in- 
tervals. A  number  of  minute  octohedral  and  prismatic 
crystals  were  also  present 1. 

Experiment  h.  A  solution  containing  seven  grains 
of  iron  and  ammonic  citrate  (mixed  with  a  few  very 
minute  fibres  of  deal  wood),  seven  grains  of  ammonic 
tartrate,  and  three  grains  of  sodic  phosphate,  to  one 
ounce  of  distilled  water. 

When  taken  from  the  digester  this  solution  was 
found  to  have  become  fluorescent — being  blackish  by 
reflected,  and  olive-green  in  colour  by  transmitted  light. 
After  a  time,  some  cloud-like  flakes  appeared,  and  also 
an  increasing  quantity  of  sediment.  After  eight  months, 


FIG.  33- 

Bright  green  Organisms  resembling  Pediastrece,  from  a  Solution  con- 
taining Iron  and  Ammonic  Citrate  and  other  ingredients.    (  X  800.) 

the  vacuum  being  still  well  preserved,  the  neck  of  the 
flask   was  broken   and  its  contents  examined  micro- 

1  Only  three  drops  of  the  fluid  were  examined. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  449 

scopically.  The  sediment  contained  a  few  wood  fibres 
and  ducts,  and  very  much  granular  matter  together  with 
actively-moving  particles,  though  no  distinct  Bacteria. 
There  were  also  very  many  ovoid  cells  (single,  and 
in  groups  of  two  to  eight),  about  TT£n/'  in  length,  with 
somewhat  granular  and  rather  bright  green  contents 
— in  which  a  vacuole  existed.  Other  somewhat  similar 
bodies  were  seen  in  groups  of  four,  each  segment  of 
which  was  surrounded  by  a  hyaline  envelope.  In  one 
group  the  protoplasm  within  the  hyaline  envelope  was 
seen  to  have  undergone  segmentation. 

Some  of  this  fluid  was  put  on  one  side  in  a  small 
corked  tube,  and  when  examined  after  six  weeks,  the 
cells  had  lost  all  their  green  colour — the  contents  having 
assumed  a  dirty  yellowish  brown  hue 1. 

Experiment  j.  A  solution  containing  fifteen  grains 
of  iron  and  ammonic  citrate  (mixed  with  a  few  minute 
fibres  of  deal  wood),  in  one  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

The  vacuum  having  been  ascertained  to  be  well 
preserved,  the  neck  of  the  flask  was  broken  eight 
months  after  its  preparation.  The  fluid,  which  was 
still  very  faintly  acid,  was  not  fluorescent,  though  there 
had  been  a  notable  amount  of  sediment  for  some  time. 
On  microscopical  examination,  the  latter  was  found  to 
consist  of  dotted  ducts  and  minute  portions  of  woody 
fibre,  mixed  with  large  quantities  of  granular  matter 

1  A  certain  general  resemblance  exists  between  the  organisms  met 
with  in  this  experiment,  and  those  of  Experiments  j,  I,  and  m,  as  well  as 
those  of  Experiment  2,  recorded  at  p.  365. 


450  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

(aggregated  into  flakes),  and  a  great  multitude  of  very 
actively-moving  particles.  Some  of  them  had  a  figure- 
of-8  shape,  and  others  were  well -formed  "Bacteria. 
There  were  also  a  few  monilated  chains,  as  well  as 
simple  unsegmented  Leptothrtx  filaments.  The  most 


FIG.  34. 

Bacteria,  different  kinds  of  Leptothrix,  and  green  Organisms  resembling 
Desmids,  from  a  Solution  of  Iron  and  Ammonic  Citrate.   (  X  800.) 

notable  products,  however,  were  a  great  number  of  single 
and  aggregated  organisms,  resembling  certain  simple 
Desmids  and  Pediastre*.  Like  them,  also,  they  exhi- 
bited slow  oscillations  or  partial  slight  rotations.  Their 
contents  were  decidedly  greenish,  though  the  hue  was 
not  so  bright  as  that  of  the  organisms  found  in  the  last 
solution.  Some  were  single,  and  others  were  in  groups 
of  four  or  eight  \ 

Two  drops  of  the  solution,  containing  some  of  the 
sediment,   were    placed    in   a   clean   animalcule-cage, 

1  The  organisms  in  this  solution  more  closely  resembled  those  of 
Experiment  2  (p.  365)  than  those  of  Experiments  I  and  m.  Bacteria  were 
contained  in  both,  and  the  solutions  themselves  were  also  more  similar 
— neither  of  them  had  become  fluorescent. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  451 

which  was  kept  at  a  temperature  of  85° — 90°  F  in  a 
developing  oven.  After  twenty-four  hours  the  groups 
and  single  Desmid-like  bodies  were  still  seen  under- 
going partial  rotations,  and  the  number  of  "Bacteria 
had  increased  in  quantity.  After  forty-eight  hours, 
a  group  of  eight  cells,  in  addition  to  solitary  and  smaller 
groups,  was  seen  distinctly  oscillating ;  and  there  were 
two  or  three  elongated  bodies  (containing  segmented 
blocks  of  protoplasm),  which  seemed  to  have  resulted 
from  the  development  of  single  organisms ;  there  were 
also  several  Leptothrix  filaments,  and  a  great  increase 
had  taken  place  in  the  number  of  Bacteria,  which  showed 
very  active  movements  of  translation.  After  this  period 
the  contents  of  the  Desmid-like  bodies  began  to  fade, 
and  they  seemed  gradually  to  die ;  though  the  Bacteria 
lived  and  increased  for  several  days,  during  which  the 
specimen  was  kept  under  observation. 

Experiment  k.  A  solution  containing  ten  grains  of 
ammonic  sulphate,  and  ten  minims  of  dilute  liquor 
ferri  perchloridi  in  one  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

A  thick  scum  formed  on  the  surface  after  about  two 
months.  The  flask  was  opened  at  the  expiration  of  the 
third  month,  the  vacuum  being  still  well  preserved. 
On  microscopical  examination,  no  trace  of  living 
things  was  to  be  seen  amongst  the  amorphous  deposit 
at  the  bottom  of  the  flask.  The  pellicle  was  found  to 
present  a  cellular  arrangement  (Fig.  39).  It  polarized 
light,  however,  and  was  obviously  crystalline  in  con- 
stitution. It  was  very  heavy — sinking  at  once  in  the 
eg  2 


452  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

watch-glass  as  soon  as  its  upper  surface  was  wetted.  This 
solution  contained  no  carbon  (see  Appendix  A,  p.  x). 

Experiment  1.  A  solution  containing  twelve  grains  of 
iron  and  ammonic  citrate  (mixed  with  a  few  very  mi- 
nute fibres  of  deal  wood)  in  one  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

The  flask  was  opened  at  the  commencement  of  the 
seventh  week  from  the  date  of  preparation.     It  was 
exposed  to  sunlight  for  about  eight  days  during  the  last 
fortnight,  though  previous  to  this  the  amount  of  sedi- 
ment had  gradually  increased.      After  the    second  or 
third  exposure  the  previously  dark  brown  fluid  became 
fluorescent — black   to   reflected,  but   olive-coloured  to 
transmitted  light.    There  was  also  a  brownish  deposit 
on  one  side  of  the  tube.     When  the  flask  was  opened 
it   was    found    that   the   vacuum   was   almost  wholly 
impaired,    by    an    internal    evolution    of    gas.       On 
microscopical  examination  of  a  drop  of  the  fluid  (con- 
taining sediment),  multitudes  of  granules,  separate  and 
aggregated  into  flakes,  were  seen.     There  were  no  dis- 
tinct Bacteria,  though  large  numbers  of  the  rounded  and 
ovoid  organisms  similar  to  those  met  with  in  Exps.  9 
and  12,  were  intermixed  with  the  granules.     They  were 
partly  separate,  partly  in  groups  of  fours  and  eights. 
They  varied  considerably  in  size,  and  also  in  colour — 
some  being  decidedly  greenish,  and  others  quite  yellow 
and  faded.    In  the  granular  aggregations,  different  stages 
in  the  growth  of  these  Desmid-like  bodies  were  to  be 
recognized.     What  appeared  to  be  short  Leptothrix  fila- 
ments issued  from  some  of  the  granular  masses. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


453 


Experiment  m.  Some  of  the  same  solution  as  was 
employed  in  the  last  experiment,  similarly  exposed 
and  rendered  similarly  fluorescent.  After  the  exposure 
to  sunlight,  however,  the  tube  was  kept  in  ordinary 
daylight  for  two  weeks,  so  that  it  was  not  opened  till 
the  commencement  of  the  ninth  week. 

It  was  then  found  that  the  vacuum  was  impaired  as 
in  the  last  experiment.  On  microscopical  examination 
of  the  sediment  the  same  kind  of  granules  (separate  and 
aggregated)  were  seen,  and  also  great  multitudes  of  the 
Desmid-like  organisms.  These  existed  more  abundantly 
than  in  the  last  solution.  Here  also  there  was  the 
same  fresh  appearance  of  some,  and  faded  look  of  others, 
and  also  great  variations  in  size  —  the  largest  being 
TWO"  in  length,  whilst  many  were  not  more  than 
length.  Several  groups  of  four  were  seen,  in 


TWO" 


FIG.  35. 

Greenish,  Desmid-like  Organisms  of  different  kinds,  and  Torulte,  found 
in  a  fluorescent  solution  of  Iron  and  Ammonic  Citrate.     ( X   800.) 

which  the  separate  elements  were  spherical  instead  of 
ovoid.      There   were   also   many  straight,   or  slightly 


454  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

curved  bodies,  having  blocks  of  protoplasm  within — 
which  apparently  resulted  from  a  longitudinal  growth 
of  single  frustules.  The  groups  of  organisms,  as  well  as 
those  which  were  single,  exhibited  the  same  slow  partial 
rotations,  forwards  and  backwards,  which  had  been 
observed  in  those  produced  in  other  solutions. 

Some  of  this  solution  was  put  into  a  corked  tube, 
and  when  it  was  examined  two  months  afterwards,  all 
the  frustules  had  lost  their  greenish  colour,  and  were 
apparently  quite  dead. 

'Experiment  n.  A  solution  containing  ten  grains  of 
ammonic  carbonate,  and  three  grains  of  sodic  phosphate 
in  one  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

The  flask  was  opened  in  the  commencement  of  the 
twelfth  week  from  the  date  of  preparation,  the  vacuum 
having  been  previously  ascertained  to  be  well  preserved. 
The  reaction  of  the  solution  was  slightly  alkaline. 
There  was  no  notable  turbidity  of  the  fluid,  though 
there  was  a  small  amount  of  whitish  deposit,  which  on 
microscopical  examination  was  found  to  be  mostly 
composed  of  amorphous  granules.  The  fluid  itself  con- 
tained a  small  number  of  minute  but  distinct  Bacteria^ 
and  also  a  number  of  figure-of-8  shaped  bodies — all 
of  which  exhibited  sluggish  movements,  They  were 
very  faint  in  colour,  so  that  on  this  account  and  owing 
to  their  small  size,  although  plentiful  enough,  they 
were  somewhat  difficult  to  recognize.  A  drop  of  the 
solution,  on  the  application  of  the  covering  glass,  had 
been  immediately  cemented,  and  when  examined  after 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  455 

twenty- four  hours,  both  varieties  of  'Bacteria  had 
notably  increased  in  quantity,  and  had  become  some- 
what larger,  though  their  movements  were  not  at  all 
more  active. 

Experiment  o.  An  infusion  of  hay,  which  had  become 
slightly  darker  by  the  exposure  to  heat,  and  in  which 
a  fine  flocculent  sediment  had  been  thrown  down. 

The  flask  was  opened  at  the  end  of  the  seventh 
week,  the  vacuum  being  still  well  preserved.  The 
reaction  of  the  fluid  was  then  found  to  be  acid,  and  its 
odour  was  hay-like  though  somewhat  altered  in  character. 
No  organisms  of  any  kind  were  discovered  in  the  fluid, 
or  amidst  the  minutely  granular  deposit. 

Experiment  p.  An  infusion  of  turnip  (not  neutralized 
but  in  its  natural  slightly  acid  condition)  was  found  to 
have  assumed  the  colour  of  pale  sherry  when  removed 
from  the  digester.  There  was  also  a  small  amount  of 
light  flocculent  sediment. 

The  flask  was  opened  eight  weeks  afterwards;  the 
vacuum  having  been  well  preserved.  The  reaction  of 
the  fluid  was  still  acid,  and  its  odour  was  that  of  baked 
turnip.  There  was  a  considerable  quantity  of  granular 
matter  at  the  bottom  of  the  flask,  but  after  careful 
microscopical  examination,  no  organisms  of  any  kind 
could  be  detected x. 


1  Compare  the  results  of  this  experiment  with  those  of  Nos.  a  and 
g.  The  very  slight  addition  of  dilute  liquor  potassae  to  the  latter 
fluids  seems  to  have  been  the  immediately  determining  cause  of  their 
productiveness  (see  p.  383).  Some  other  experiments  recorded  in 


456  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

After  it  had  been  examined,  the  remainder  of  the 
fluid  was  left  in  the  open  flask.  Six  weeks  afterwards 
it  was  accidentally  noticed,,  and  a  bluish-green  fungus 
was  seen  covering  the  surface  of  the  fluid.  On 
microscopical  examination  of  the  sediment  which  had 
collected  at  the  bottom  of  the  flask,  multitudes  of 
Torula  cells  were  found,  though  there  was  a  complete 
absence  of  Bacteria  ]. 


Solutions  exposed  in  airless  and  hermetically-sealed  flasks  to 
a  temperature  of  295° — 307°^  (146°—  i53°C)  for  four 
hours,  and  subsequently  maintained  at  a  temperature  of 
70°— 80°^. 

Experiment  q.  An  infusion  of  turnip  which  had 
been  much  charred  by  the  high  temperature.  It  had 
become  brown  in  colour,  and  in  addition  there  was  a 

Appendix  C,  also  point  to  the  desirability  of  neutralizing  a  turnip 
infusion  if  we  wish  to  increase  the  chances  of  finding  organisms  within 
the  flasks.  In  Exps.  a  and  g  the  odour  was  not  that  of  mere  baked 
turnip,  and  the  solutions  had  become  acid — fermentation  had  in  fact 
taken  place. 

1  I  have  also  on  other  occasions  (see  Appendix  C,  Exp.  xviii.)  fre- 
quently found,  when  the  fermentability  of  certain  fluids  is  lowered  by  the 
influence  of  heat,  that  they  yield  nothing  but  slowly-growing  Torulce, 
although  a  portion  of  the  same  fluid,  unheated  and  standing  beneath 
the  same  bell-jar,  would  speedily  become  turbid  and  yield  myriads 
of  Bacteria  without  Torula.  Facts  of  this  kind  are  very  interesting, 
and  serve  to  throw  light  upon  the  morphological  differences  which 
exist  between  Bacteria  and  Torulce.  Crystals  which  are  produced 
rapidly,  are  always  smaller  and  less  perfect  in  form  than  those  of 
slower  growth. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  457 

blackish-brown  deposit  of  charred  matter,  which,  after 
it  had  thoroughly  settled,  was  about  equal  to  one-twelfth 
of  the  bulk  of  the  fluid. 

The  flask  was  opened  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  week, 
when  the  vacuum  was  found  to  be  well  preserved.  The 
odour  of  the  fluid  was  for  the  most  part  that  of  baked 
turnip,  and  its  reaction  was  acid.  The  deposit  was 
composed  of  amorphous  granules,  and  also  of  a  mul- 
titude of  reddish  or  claret-coloured  spherules  of  various 
sizes,  but  no  organisms  of  any  kind  could  be  dis- 
covered. 

Experiment  r.  An  infusion  of  turnip  rendered  slightly 
alkaline  by  the  addition  of  dilute  liquor  ammonias,  was 
affected  in  almost  precisely  the  same  way  as  in  the  last 
experiment. 

The  flask  was  prepared  at  the  same  time,  and  opened 
after  the  same  interval.  The  deposit,  in  its  micro- 
scopical characters,  resembled  that  found  in  the  last 
experiment,  and  there  was  a  similar  absence  of  all 
organisms 1. 

Experiment  s.  A  tube  containing  an  unaltered  infusion 
of  turnip  was  opened  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  day. 

When  received  from  Dr.  Frankland,  the  fluid  had 
been  changed  to  a  decided  but  light  brown  colour,  and 
there  was  some  quantity  of  a  blackish-brown  granular 

1  Considering  the  results  which  were  obtained  in  Exps.  a  and  g,  I 
think  that  a  turnip  infusion  neutralized  by  liquor  potassoe  rather  than 
liquor  ammonias,  is  one  of  the  most  favourable  combinations  for  producing 
organisms  after  exposure  to  high  temperatures. 


458  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

sediment,  though  the  infusion  had  been  quite  free  from 
all  deposit  when  placed  in  the  digester.  After  this 
tube  was  suspended  in  a  warm  place,  as  the  others  had 
been,  it  remained  in  the  same  position  till  it  was 
taken  down  to  be  opened.  A  slight  scum  or  pellicle, 
which  partially  covered  the  surface,  was  observed  on 
the  sixth  day.  During  the  succeeding  days  it  did 
not  increase  much  in  extent,  though  it  became  some- 
what thicker.  Although  very  great  care  was  taken, 
still  the  slight  movement  of  the  flask,  occasioned  in 
knocking  off  its  top,  caused  the  pellicle  to  break  up 
and  sink  ]. 

The  contents  of  the  flask  emitted  a  somewhat 
fragrant  odour  of  baked  turnip,  and  the  reaction  of  the 
fluid  was  still  slightly  acid.  On  microscopical  exami- 
nation, a  great  deal  of  mere  granular  debris  and  irregular 
masses  of  a  brownish  colour  were  found,  and  also  a 
very  large  number  of  dark,  and  apparently  homogeneous 
reddish-brown  spherules,  mostly  varying  in  size  from 
TSW"  to  2i)ih>o"  in  diameter,  partly  single  and  partly 
in  groups  of  various  kinds.  There  were  no  distinct 
Bacteria^  though  in  one  of  the  drops  examined  there  was 
a  delicate  tailed-monad  in  active  movement  —  a  speci- 
men of  Monas  lens^  in  fact,  y^/'  in  diameter,  having 


1  It  was  owing  to  the  appearance  of  the  pellicle  and  the  seeming 
likelihood  of  its  breaking  up  and  sinking  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
as  others  had  done,  if  allowed  to  remain,  that  I  was  induced  to  open  this 
tube  so  early.  I  thought  it  possible  that  nothing  else  might  form  after- 
wards, and  felt  anxious  to  examine  the  pellicle  before  it  became  mixed 
with  the  granular  deposit. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  459 

a  distinct  vacuoie  in  the  midst  of  the  granular  contents 
of  the  cell,  and  a  rapidly-moving  flagellum. 

Experiment  t.  An  infusion  of  hay.  When  taken 
from  the  digester  there  was  a  considerable  quantity  of 
brownish-black,  charred,  organic  matter  at  the  bottom 
of  the  flask,  though  the  fluid  itself  was  clear  and  of  a 
dark  sherry  colour. 

The  flask  was  opened  on  the  fourteenth  day  •  and  for 
six  or  seven  days  previously  a  slight  scum  had  been 
seen  covering  part  of  the  surface  of  the  fluid,  the  solu- 
tion itself  remaining  clear.  The  fluid  was  found  to  be 
quite  strongly  acid,  whilst  its  odour  was  sour  and  not  at 
all  hay-like.  The  scum  was  found  to  be  composed  of 
mere  charred  granules  and  globules,  and  no  trace  of 
organisms  could  be  found  either  in  the  fluid  or  amongst 
the  deposit l. 

Experiment  u.  A  solution  containing  fifteen  grains  of 
ammonic  carbonate,  and  five  grains  of  sodic  phosphate, 
in  one  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

When  taken  from  the  digester  the  glass  of  the  tube 
was  found  to  be  considerably  corroded,  and  there  was 


1  This  infusion  had  been  evidently  wholly  altered  in  quality  by  the 
high  temperature  to  which  it  had  been  exposed ;  and  from  the  fact  that 
it  was  left  in  an  open  flask  for  more  than  a  week,  and  was  still  found  to 
be  free  from  any  trace  of  living  things,  its  original  sterility  cannot  be 
wondered  at.  It  is  easy  enough  to  believe  that  the  different  organic 
compounds  existing  in  different  infusions  would  be  differently  capable  of 
resisting  the  destructive  influence  of  heat ;  so  that  some  infusions  may 
be  much  more  favourable  than  others  for  experiments  in  which  high 
temperatures  are  resorted  to. 


460  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

a  whitish  deposit  as  a  result  of  this.  After  a  few  weeks 
many  bluish  cloudlike  masses  became  visible  in  the 
fluid,  dotted  here  and  there  with  minute  whitish  spots, 
but  no  pellicle  made  its  appearance  on  the  surface. 
The  flask  was  opened  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  week, 
no  apparent  change  having  taken  place.  On  micro- 
scopical examination  the  flakes  were  found  to  have  a 
very  minutely  granular  composition,  and  the  whitish 
spots  on  them  consisted  of  aggregations  of  minute 
linear  crystals,  about  2-wuV'  m  length.  The  deposit 
was  composed  of  amorphous  particles  and  spherules,  but 
there  was  no  trace  of  the  existence  of  living  things l. 

Experiment  v.  A  solution  of  eight  grains  of  ammonic 
carbonate  and  three  grains  of  sodic  phosphate  in  one 
ounce  of  distilled  water. 

When  taken  from  the  digester  the  glass  was  not  in 
the  least  corroded.  The  tube  was  opened  at  the  ex- 
piration of  eight  weeks,  when  the  vacuum  was  found 
to  be  well  preserved.  There  was  a  very  small  amount 
of  whitish  deposit  at  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  tube, 
though  there  never  had  been  any  trace  of  scum  on  the 
surface.  When  examined  microscopically  the  deposit 
was  found  to  be  composed  of  more  or  less  rounded 
refractive  particles,  imbedded  in  a  homogeneous  colour- 
less matrix.  There  were  also  very  many  motionless  rod- 

1  This  tube  was  one  of  English  glass.  The  quality  of  the  solution 
must  have  been  altogether  altered  by  the  corrosion — a  great  part,  if 
not  the  whole,  of  the  phosphoric  acid  being  precipitated  in  the  form 
of  insoluble  phosphate  of  lead. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  461 

like  bodies  from  -g^Vo"  to  TTVs"  in  length  (crystalline  ?), 
but  no  trace  of  living  things,  either  amongst  them  or 
suspended  in  the  fluid  itself. 

Experiment  w.  A  solution  containing  an  unweighed 
quantity  of  ammonic  carbonate  and  sodic  phosphate  in 
distilled  water. 

The  fluid  was  at  first  somewhat  whitish  and  clouded. 
From  the  twentieth  to  the  thirtieth  day  a  thin  pellicle 
had  been  seen  gradually  accumulating  on  its  surface; 
and  in  the  latter  four  or  five  days  this  increased  much 
in  thickness,  and  gradually  assumed  a  distinct  mucoid 
appearance.  The  fluid  itself  was  tolerably  clear,  though 
an  apparent  turbidity  was  given  by  the  presence  of  a 
fine  whitish  deposit  on  the  sides  of  the  glass. 

The  flask  was  opened  on  the  thirtieth  day,  and  the 
reaction  of  the  fluid  was  then  found  to  be  neutral. 
When  submitted  to  microscopical  examination  portions 
of  the  pellicle  were  seen  to  be  made  up  of  large, 
irregular,  and  highly-refractive  particles,  imbedded  in 
a  transparent  jelly-like  material.  The  particles  were 
most  varied  in  size  and  shape,  many  of  them  being 
variously  branched  and  knobbed.  Several  very  delicate 
perfectly  hyaline  vesicles  about  YFOO"  *n  diameter, 
altogether  free  from  solid  contents,  were  seen ;  and,  in 
addition,  there  were  a  number  of  figure-of-8  bodies, 
exhibiting  tolerably  active  vibrations,  each  half  of 
which  was  about  3-0%0o"  ^n  diameter. 

A  subsequent  careful  examination,  on  the  same 
evening,  of  a  quantity  of  the  granular  matter  of  the 


462  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

pellicle  (which  had  been  mounted  on  two  microscope- 
slips,  and  at  once  protected  by  surrounding  the  covering 
glasses  with  cement).,  revealed  five  spherical  or  ovoid 
spores,  the  average  size  of  which  was  about  -^^W  in 
diameter.  They  all  possessed  a  more  or  less  perfectly- 


8    8 


FIG.  36. 


Spore-like  bodies,  and  figure-of-8  particles,  from  a  solution  of  Ammonic 
Carbonate  and  Sodic  Phosphate.     (  x  600.) 

formed  nucleus,  and  all  showed  a  most  distinct  doubly- 
contoured  wall.  One  of  the  smaller  of  them  showed 
that  it  had  reached  a  stage  when  it  was  about  to 
germinate.  In  addition,  a  small  mass  of  Sarcina-like 
material  was  seen,  which  was  not  very  distinctly  de- 
fined, owing  to  its  being  still  in  a  somewhat  embry- 
onic stage. 

Experiment  x.  A  solution  containing  eight  grains 
of  ammonic  carbonate  and  three  grains  of  sodic 
phosphate. 

The  vacuum  having  been  ascertained  to  be  well 
preserved,  the  tube  was  opened  in  the  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  week.  There  was  no  pellicle  or  scum 
of  any  kind,  and  no  turbidity,  though  there  was  a  very 
small  amount  of  deposit  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
The  reaction  of  the  fluid  was  decidedly  though  not 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  463 

strongly  alkaline.  On  microscopical  examination.,  the 
deposit  was  found  to  be  principally  made  up  of  mere 
amorphous  granules — separate,  as  well  as  forming  ag- 
gregations of  various  sizes.  Here  and  there,  however, 
there  were  granules,  both  separate  and  aggregated,  of 
a  much  less  refractive  character,  and  more  closely  re- 
sembling organic  particles.  Short  homogeneous  fila- 
ments, having  all  the  appearance  of  Leptothrix,  were 
seen  to  project  from  two  or  three  of  the  granule  heaps. 


FIG.  37. 

Bacteria,  Leptothrix,  and  Spore-like  bodies  found  in  a  Solution  of 
Ammonia  Carbonate  and  Sodic  Phosphate.     (  X   800.) 

Several  Bacteria,  some  of  medium  size,  and  others  some- 
what large  and  unjointed,  were  observed,  flitting  across 
the  field  of  view  with  quite  rapid  undulating  move- 
ments, whilst  others  were  seen  rapidly  rotating  on 
their  long  axis.  There  were  also  many  figure-of-8 
shaped  bodies  which  showed  distinct  and  slightly  pro- 
gressive movements — quite  different  from  those  which 
are  called  c  Brownian ' —  though  many  single  particles 
were  seen  which  soon  ceased  to  exhibit  movements  of 
any  kind.  In  addition,  there  were  several  spore-like 


464  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

bodies  having  doubly-contoured  walls,  which  were  also 
similar  to  those  of  the  last  solution. 

'Experiment  y.  A  solution  containing  an  unweighed 
quantity  of  ammonic  tartrate  and  sodic  phosphate  in 
distilled  water. 

The  solution  in  this  tube  was  at  first  quite  colourless, 
clear,  and  free  from  visible  deposit.  About  the  fifth 
or  sixth  day,  however,  after  it  had  been  suspended  in 
a  warm  place,  a  number  of  small,  pale,  bluish-white 
flocculi  made  their  appearance  throughout  the  solution, 
and  continued  always  in  the  same  situation  except 
when  the  fluid  was  shaken, — owing  apparently  to  their 
specific  weight  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  fluid 
itself.  The  contents  of  the  tube  were  repeatedly 
scanned  with  the  greatest  care  with  the  aid  of  a  lens, 
though  nothing  else  could  be  seen  until  about  the 
expiration  of  a  month.  Then  there  was  observed, 
attached  to  one  of  the  flocculi,  about  £"  from  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  a  small,  opaque,  whitish  speck, 
scarcely  bigger  than  a  pin's  point.  This  seemed  to 
increase  very  slowly  in  size  for  the  next  three  or  four 
weeks,  and  then  another  smaller  mass  was  also  per- 
ceived. At  the  expiration  of  this  time  the  larger  mass 
was  more  than  |"  in  diameter.  Both  could  be,  and 
were,  seen  by  several  people  with  the  naked  eye. 
During  the  three  weeks  immediately  preceding  the 
opening  of  the  flask,  it  was  often  remarked  that  the 
mass  did  not  appear  to  have  undergone  any  increase 
in  size. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  465 

It  was  found  that  the  tube  acted  as  a  water-hammer 
only  to  a  trifling  extent  before  it  was  opened,  though, 
when  the  narrow  end  of  the  tube  was  broken  off,  there 
was  a  slight  dull  report,  and  a  quantity  of  small  particles 
of  glass  were  swept  by  the  in-rush  of  air  into  the 
fluid.  There  had  still,  then,  been  a  partial  vacuum  in 
the  tube.  The  reaction  of  the  fluid  was  found  to  be 
slightly  acid. 

This  tube  was  opened  in  Dr.  Sharpey's  presence. 
He  had  examined  the  white  masses  previously  with  a 
pocket-lens,  and  when  the  vessel  was  broken  the  larger 
white  mass  issued  with  some  of  the  first  portions  of 
the  fluid,  which  were  poured  into  a  large  watch-glass. 
It  was  at  once  taken  up  on  the  point  of  a  penknife 
and  transferred  to  a  clean  glass  slip,  where  it  was  im- 
mersed in  a  drop  of  the  experimental  fluid  and  then 
protected  by  a  thin  glass  cover.  On  microscopical 
examination,  we  at  once  saw  that  the  whitish  mass 
was  composed  of  a  number  of  rounded  and  ovoidal 
spores,  with  mycelial  filaments  issuing  from  them,  in 
all  stages  of  development.  The  spores  varied  much  in 
shape  and  dimensions  j  the  prevalent  size  being  about 
•STIR/'  *n  diameter,  though  one  was  seen  as  much 
as  TnyV/'  in  diameter.  They  all  possessed  a  single  and 
rather  large  nucleus,  which  was  mostly  made  up  of  an 
aggregation  of  granular  particles.  Some  were  just  begin- 
ning to  develop  mycelial  filaments  j  others  had  already 
given  origin  to  such  filaments,  which  were  about  ^V^" 
in  diameter,  and  in  which  were  scattered  some  colour- 

VOL.  i.  H  h 


466 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 


less  protoplasmic  granules,  but  no  vacuoles.  Contiguous 
to  these  fresh  and  evidently  living  portions  of  the  plant, 
there  were  other  parts  in  all  stages  of  decay,  in  which 


FIG.  38. 

Fungus  found  in  a  solution  of  Ammonic  Tartrate  and  Sodic 
Phosphate.     (  X  600.) 

the  remains  of  the  filaments  were  seen  in  the  form 
of  more  or  less  irregular  rows  of  brownish  granules — 
representing  the  altered  protoplasmic  contents  of  a 
previous  filament,  whose  walls  were  now  often  scarcely 
visible.  Subsequently  the'  smaller  white  mass  was 
picked  out,  and  this  was  found  to  contain  some  living 
mycelium  and  spores,  and  also  a  considerable  patch  of 
decaying  filaments,  in  connection  with  which  there 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  467 

was  a  long  and  broader  filament  bearing  at  its  distal 
extremity  a  large  aggregation  of  more  than  100  spores, 
quite  naked,  and  very  similar  in  character  to  those 
from  which  the  mycelial  thread  arose.  This  plant  was 
evidently  a  Penici  Ilium,  quite  similar  to  what  had  been 
obtained  from  other  ammonic  tartrate  and  sodic  phos- 
phate solutions1.  The  delicate  flocculi  that  first  made 

1  I  have  ascertained  that  the  life  of  this  particular  fungus  is  destroyed 
by  exposure  for  a  few  minutes  to  the  influence  of  boiling  water.  Placed 
even  in  a  mere  corked  flask,  containing  an  ammonic  tartrate  solution, 
the  boiled  fungus  does  not  grow,  whilst  an  unboiled  specimen  will  slowly 
increase  and  grow  in  all  directions.  (The  extremely  slow  growth  of  the 
fungus  in  this  solution  is  very  remarkable,  when  compared  with  the 
rapidity  with  which  other  minute  fungi  increase  in  organic  solutions.) 
A  specimen  which  had  been  boiled  for  5"  was  kept  under  observation 
for  nearly  three  months,  and  it  showed  not  the  slightest  signs  of  growth. 
Mere  exposure  to  the  influence  of  boiling  water  for  a  few  minutes  suffices 
to  break  up  and  disperse  such  heads  of  fructification  as  are  represented 
in  Fig.  38,  and  also  to  produce  some  amount  of  disorganization  of  the 
filaments.  How  much  more,  therefore,  does  it  seem  likely  that  an 
exposure  to  1 46-1 5  3°  C  for  four  hours,  should  prove  destructive  even  to 
mere  organic  forms  ?  With  the  view  of  answering  this  question,  I  placed 
a  quantity  of  a  small  fungus,  consisting  of  mycelial  filaments  and  multi- 
tudes of  spores  (closely  resembling,  although  not  quite  so  delicate  as 
those  which  were  met  with  in  the  saline  mixtures),  into  a  solution,  of  the 
same  strength  as  that  which  had  been  previously  employed,  of  tartrate 
of  ammonia  and  phosphate  of  soda  in  distilled  water,  and  then  handed 
it  over  to  Dr.  Frankland  with  the  request  that  he  would  kindly  treat  this 
in  the  same  way  as  he  had  done  the  other  solutions.  Accordingly, 
on  May  u,  a  vacuum  having  been  produced  within  the  flask  before  it 
was  hermetically  sealed,  the  solution  was  submitted  in  the  s  sme  digester 
to  a  temperature  of  146-1 53°  C  for  four  hours.  When  taken  from 
the  digester,  the  previously  whitish  mass  of  fungus  filaments  and  spores 
had  assumed  a  decidedly  brownish  colour,  and  it  was  in  great  part 
converted  into  mere  debris.  On  the  following  morning  the  flask  was 
broken,  and  some  of  the  remains  of  the  fungus  and  its  spores  were 

H  h  2 


468  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

their  appearance  in  the  solution,  and  which  persisted 
throughout,  were  gelatinous  and  made  up  of  aggre- 
gations of  the  finest  granules.  These,  however,  became 
almost  invisible  when  mounted  in  glycerine  and  car- 
bolic acid. 

Experiment  z.  A  solution  containing  eight  grains  of 
ammonic  tartrate,  and  three  grains  of  sodic  phosphate, 
in  one  ounce  of  New  River  water  (from  the  tap). 

On  dissolving  the  crystals  in  this  water,  a  small 
amount  of  fine  white  precipitate  was  produced.  After 
the  tube  was  taken  from  the  digester  a  fine  white  de- 
posit soon  subsided.  No  cloud-like  flocculi  appeared, 
and  no  further  change  was  discovered  in  the  solution. 
The  tube  was  opened  on  the  sixty-sixth  day,  after  the 
vacuum  had  been  ascertained  to  be  still  well  preserved. 
The  fluid  had  a  neutral  reaction,  and  on  microscopical 
examination  no  living  things  could  be  found,  either  in 
it  or  amongst  the  amorphous  granules  of  the  sediment ]. 

In  addition  to  the  experiments  now  recorded,  I  have 
performed  twenty  others  in  which  the  tubes  and  solu- 

examined  microscopically.  Tie  plant  was  completely  disorganised :  not  a 
single  entire  spore  could  be  found ;  they  were  all  broken  up  into  small 
and  more  or  less  irregular  particles,  and  the  filaments  were  more  or  less 
empty — containing  no  definite  contents,  and  being  only  represented  by 
torn  tubular  fragments  of  various  sizes. 

1  New  River  water  was  used  in  this  case  with  the  view  of  seeing  how 
the  results  would  be  modified.  It  probably  contained  too  much  lime- 
salts  and  other  saline  constituents.  Germs,  of  course,  may  have  been 
present  in  abundance,  and  yet  no  living  things  were  subsequently  to  be 
found. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFg.  469 

tions  were  exposed  to  still  higher  temperatures.  In 
fourteen  of  these  they  were  heated  to  a  temperature 
ranging  as  high  as  327°F  (i64°C)  for  four  hours, 
whilst  in  the  other  six  they  were  maintained  at  a 
temperature  of  464° F  (240° C)  for  one  hour1.  Some 
only  of  each  set  have  been  opened,  but  all  of  these 
were  wholly  devoid  of  living  things.  The  infusions 
of  hay  and  turnip  which  have  been  heated  to  the 
lower  temperature  of  327° F  were  almost  hopelessly 
changed  by  this  amount  of  heat.  When  taken  from 
the  digester,  the  previously  clear  and  colourless  turnip 
infusions,  for  instance,  were  of  a  brownish-black  colour  j 
owing  to  the  abundant  presence  of  granules  and  flakes 
of  charred  organic  matter,  which,  after  complete  sub- 
sidence, occupied  a  space  equal  in  bulk  to  one-fourth 
of  the  supernatant  brown  fluid.  Infusions  of  hay  were 


1  The  latter  tubes  had  been  sealed  in  the  blow-pipe  flame  during  the 
ebullition  of  their  contained  fluids.  Each  was  then  placed  in  a  very 
thick  iron  tube,  whose  internal  diameter  was  only  slightly  larger  than 
the  glass,  and  into  which  some  of  the  experimental  fluid  was  also  poured. 
Each  iron  tube  was  fitted  with  a  screw-cap,  which  was  firmly  fastened  by 
means  of  long  iron  wrenches,  whilst  the  tube  itself  was  secured  in  a  vice. 
The  hermetically  sealed  glass  tube  was  thus  enclosed  within  a  her- 
metically closed  iron  tube,  and  by  putting  the  same  kind  of  fluid  within 
each,  an  equal  pressure  was  ensured  upon  the  inner  and  the  outer  surfaces 
of  the  glass.  All  the  tubes  were  then  placed  in  an  iron  vessel  containing 
five  quarts  of  the  very  best  French  Colza  oil,  which  was  maintained,  by 
means  of  gas  burners,  at  a  temperature  of  464°  F  for  one  hour.  Although 
the  oil  did  not  boil,  the  vapours  which  were  given  off  at  this  temperature 
were  most  disagreeable  and  suffocating,  and  made  me  feel  faint  and  giddy 
for  several  hours  afterwards.  Oils  of  inferior  quality  are  not  available, 
because  they  actually  boil  at  much  lower  temperatures. 

H  h  3 


470  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

charred  to  a  similar  extent.  Infusions  of  mutton, 
however,  were  scarcely  altered  in  colour  by  this  tempe- 
rature or  by  the  higher  one  of  464°  F,  and  only  a  small 
amount  of  a  light  flocculent  precipitate  was  thrown 
down.  But  on  opening  these  flasks,  the  mutton  infu- 
sion in  each  case  presented  a  very  strongly  ammoniacal 
and  otherwise  unpleasant  odour,  and  was  also  alkaline 
in  reaction.  The  organic  compounds  had,  therefore, 
been  differently  decomposed  in  these  cases — in  the  hay 
and  turnip  infusions  more  or  less  pure  carbon  had 
been  liberated,  whilst  the  mutton  solution  probably 
broke  up,  in  the  main,  into  ammonia  and  carbonic 
anhydride.  Seeing  that  the  organic  matter  was  so 
thoroughly  destroyed  in  these  infusions,  there  was  not 
much  chance  that  any  mere  shreds  of  it  should 
have  escaped  uninjured  in  the  tubes  which  contained 
various  saline  solutions.  And  in  those  experiments 
in  which  the  tubes  and  their  solutions  were  raised  to 
the  temperature  of  464°  F,  all  the  disadvantages  were 
further  augmented  by  the  extreme  amount  of  corrosion 
of  the  tubes,  which  took  place  even  when  the  hardest 
Bohemian  glass  was  employed. 

Confining  ourselves,  therefore,  to  a  consideration  of 
the  experiments  in  which  the  closed  flasks  containing 
the  experimental  fluids  have  been  heated  to  tempera- 
tures ranging  from  27o°-3O7°F,  the  results  arrived  at 
must  be  looked  at  from  two  or  three  different  points 
of  view. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  471 

Living  organisms  have,  undoubtedly,  been  obtained 
from  hermetically  sealed  flasks  which  had  been  heated 
for  various  periods  to  such  temperatures;  and  many 
persons  have  been  not  a  little  surprised  at  the  com- 
paratively high  forms  of  life  which  have  presented 
themselves.  This  of  itself  has  been  deemed  by  some 
to  be  a  difficulty  of  so  serious  a  nature  as  to  make 
them  hesitate  to  accept  the  results  of  the  experiments — 
principally  on  account  of  a  preconceived  notion  that 
such  organisms  could  not  arise  de  novo  and  without 
ordinary  parentage.  Although  willing  to  concede  that 
the  very  simplest  organisms  might  so  arise,  they  are 
quite  indisposed  to  believe  that  some  of  the  higher 
forms  which  I  have  represented  could  have  had  an 
independent  origin.  I  will  not,  however,  at  present 
enter  upon  this  question,  but  will  merely  state  that 
such  difficulties  are  likely  to  disappear  on  a  more 
thorough  consideration  of  the  subject — as  it  is  hoped 
the  reader  will  perceive  after  a  perusal  of  Chaps,  xiii. 
xiv.  and  xv. 

Limiting  ourselves  at  present  to  the  fact  that  specks 
of  living  matter  must  either  have  been  born  in  the 
experimental  fluids  after  they  had  been  exposed  to 
the  heat,  or  else  (having  pre-existed  in  the  fluids)  have 
braved  its  influence,  we  have  merely  again  to  consider 
which  of  these  alternatives  is  the  more  probable.  A 
choice  must  be  made,  and  yet,  as  Prof.  Wyman  has 
pointed  out,  it  does  not  appear  at  first  sight  that  a 
profitable  resort  can  be  made  to  arguments  from  analogy. 


472  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

He  says ! : — '  If,  on  the  one  hand,  it  is  urged  that  all 
organisms,  in  so  far  as  the  early  history  of  them  is 
known,  are  derived  from  ova,  and  therefore  from 
analogy,  we  must  ascribe  a  similar  origin  to  these 
minute  beings  whose  early  history  we  do  not  know; 
it  may  be  urged  with  equal  force,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  all  ova  and  spores,  in  so  far  as  we  know  anything 
about  them,  are  destroyed  by  prolonged  boiling :  there- 
fore from  analogy  we  are  equally  bound  to  infer  that 
Vibrios,  Bacteriums,  &c.,  could  not  have  been  derived 
from  ova,  since  these  would  all  have  been  destroyed  by 
the  conditions  to  which  they  have  been  subjected. 
The  argument  from  analogy  is  as  strong  in  the  one 
case  as  in  the  other.' 

We  do  not  think,  however,  that  the  analogical 
arguments  are  so  nearly  balanced  as  Prof.  Wyman 
appears  to  consider  them.  Whilst  it  would  contradict 
all  our  previous  experience,  and  violate  the  uniformity 
of  natural  laws,  if  certain  pre-existing  germs  had  been 
able  to  survive  the  exposure  to  which  they  must  have 
been  subjected  in  my  experimental  flasks,  it  would  in 
no  way  outrage  our  experience  if  we  found  that  specks 
of  living  matter  might  form  de  novo  in  some  fluids,  just 
as  specks  of  crystalline  matter  form  in  other  fluids — 
especially  as  they  do  actually  appear,  under  the  micro- 
scope, to  arise  in  this  way.  The  physical  doctrines  of 
life  which  are  now  so  widely  believed  in,  speak  unhesi- 

1  'American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art,'  July,  1862. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  473 


tatingly  in  favour  of  the  latter  possibility.  So  that 
we  have  an  analogical  argument  of  great  force,  and,  in 
addition,  most  overwhelming  experimental  evidence, 
tending  to  oppose  a  mere  dogma  (omne  vivum  ex  vivo) 
which  many  erroneously  believe  to  be  a  legitimate 
inference  from  every-day  experience.  I  say  that  this 
inference  is  erroneous,  because,  whilst  we  do  know 
something  about  the  ability  which  most  organisms 
possess  of  reproducing  similar  organisms,  we  cannot 
possibly  say,  from  direct  observation,  that  every  organism 
which  exists  has  had  a  similar  mode  of  origin.  The 
cases  in  which  organisms  may  have  originated  de  novo 
are  the  very  cases  in  which  their  mode  of  origin  must 
elude  our  observation;  for  it  can  actually  be  shown 
that  some  organisms  make  their  appearance  in  fluids 
after  precisely  the  same  fashion  as  crystals — that  is  to 
say,  they  can  be  seen  to  arise  independently  of  all 
pre-existing  visible  germs  l. 

Germs,  therefore,  which  cannot  be  seen,  and  which 
nobody  knows,  are  not  only  presumed  to  exist,  but 
(contrary  to  all  evidence)  they  are  to  be  deemed 
capable  of  resisting  the  influence  of  far  higher  tempe- 

1  Having  made  this  announcement  on  a  previous  occasion,  and 
having  had  the  satisfaction  of  finding  it  pooh-poohed  as  an  idle  state- 
ment, I,  still  believing  in  its  truth,  am  glad  to  ascertain  that  others  hold 
the  same  opinion.  Dr.  Burdon  Sanderson  says  in  a  recent  Memoir 
(Thirteenth  Report  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  Privy  Council, 
p.  62) : — '  From  the  most  careful  and  repeated  examinations  of  water 
known  to  be  zymotic,  we  have  learnt  that  such  waters  often  contain  no 
elements  or  particles  whatever  which  can  be  detected  by  the  microscope.' 


474  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE. 

ratures  than  those  which,  on  other  occasions,  are 
uniformly  found  to  be  fatal  to  all  germs  with  which 
experiment  is  made,  whether  visible  or  invisible.  And, 
moreover,  some  would  have  us  give  credence  to  these 
assumptions  and  improbabilities,  in  order  to  stave 
off  a  belief  in  the  occurrence  of  something  which 
would  be  thoroughly  harmonious  with  all  the  best 
biological  knowledge  of  the  day. 

Let  the  reader  finally  consider  the  extent  of  the 
contradictions  which  would  be  involved  by  the  ac- 
ceptance of  the  hypothesis,  that  the  results  of  my 
experiments  are  to  be  explained  by  the  assumption 
that  some  preexisting  germs  escaped  death  within  the 
closed  flasks,  during  the  fiery  ordeal  to  which  they  had 
been  submitted. 

It  has  been  previously  shown  that  Bacteria  and 
Torul#—a.s  well  as  their  germs,  both  visible  and  in- 
visible 1 — are  killed  by  exposure  for  ten  minutes  to  a 
temperature  of  140°  F,  and  that  they  are  even  destroyed 
by  a  heat  of  I25°F,  when  it  is  prolonged  for  four 
hours.  It  is,  moreover,  admitted  by  all  persons  who 
have  paid  an  adequate  attention  to  the  subject,  that  all 
such  low  organisms  as  may  be  met  with  in  the  experi- 
mental fluids,  are  unable  to  resist  the  destructive  in- 
fluence of  boiling  water.  And  yet  now,  in  addition  to 
all  the  evidence  previously  detailed,  we  again  find  living 
organisms  occurring  in  closed  flasks  which  have  been 

1  See  pp.  331-333- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  LIFE.  475 

exposed  to  370°  F,  and  293° F,  and  even  in  others 
which  have  been  heated  to  295°-3O7°F  for  four  hours. 
Of  these  experiments  none  have,  perhaps,  yielded  more 
striking  results  than  No.  b.  Here  active  Protamceb<e 
and  ciliated  Monads  were  taken  from  an  hermetically 
sealed  flask  which,  eight  weeks  previously,  had  been 
exposed  to  a  temperature  of  27o0-275°F;  and  these 
very  organisms  were  killed  by  the  same  temperature 
(i40°F)  as  that  which  has  been  found  to  prove  fatal  to 
all  other  Monads  and  Protam<eh<e. 

It  seems  scarcely  possible  to  present  experimental 
evidence  which  could  speak  more  plainly  in  favour  of 
the  occurrence  of  Archebiosis. 


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